


I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. # 

# i - : # 

# I o fe ^ # 
J UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. { 



PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION 



FOR 



TIN, SHEET IHOIST, 



AND 



COPPER PLATE WORKERS. 

CONTAINING 

RULES FOR DESCRIBING VARIOUS KINDS OP PATTERNS USED BY TIN, 

SHEET IRON, AND COPPER PLATE WORKERS J 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY,* 

Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; 

TABLES OP THE WEIGHTS OP METALS, LEAD PIPE, ETC.; 

TABLES OP AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES ; 

JAPANS, VARNISHES, LACKERS, CEMENTS, COMPOSITIONS, 

ETC., ETC., ETC. 

By LEROY J. BLINN, 

MASTER MECHANIC. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 

406 WALNUT STREET, 

1865. 



- • 



\ 



,$<° b 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by 
LERO Y J. BLINN, 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
District of Michigan. 



i-^no 



CONTENTS 



RULES FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 

An Envelope for a Cone 3 

A Frustrum of a Cone 4 

A Can top or Deck flange 5 

A Pattern for, or an Envelope for, a Frustrum of a Cone. 6 

A Tapering Oval Article to be in four Sections 7 

A Tapering Oval Article to be in two Sections 12, 13 

A Tapering Oval Article , 16 

A Tapering Oval or Oblong Article, the sides to be 
Straight, with Quarter Circle corners, to be in two 

Sections 19 

A Tapering Oval or Oblong Article, the sides to be 
Straight, one end to be a Semicircle, the other end to 
be Straight, with Quarter Circle corners, to be in two 

Sections . * 21 

A Tapering Oval or Oblong Article, the sides to be 

Straight, with Semicircle ends, to be in two Sections.. 23 

Covering of Circular Roofs 25 

Two different Principles 25 

To cover a Dome by the first Method 26 

To cover a Dome by the second Method 27 

To ascertain the Outline of a Course of Covering to a 

Dome, without reference to a Section of the Dome. . . 28 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Square Article 29 

(iii) 



IV CONTENTS. 

A Square Tapering Article to be in two Sections "30 

A Tapering Article, the Base to be Square, and the Top 

a Circle, in two Sections . 31 

A Tapering Article, the Base to be a, Eectangle, and the 

Top Square, in two Sections 32 

A Tapering Article, the Base to be a Rectangle, and the 

Top a Circle, in two Sections , 34 

A Tapering Article, the Top and Base to be a Rectangle, 

in two Sections 36 

Tapering Octagon Top or Cover 38 

A Miter Joint at Right Angles for a Semicircle Gutter . 40 

A Miter Joint at any Angle for a Semicircle Gutter 41 

A Miter Joint for an O G Gutter at Right Angles 42 

A Miter Joint for an O G Cornice at Right Angles ; also 

an Offset , 44 

An Octagon G Lamp Top or Cover 46 

A T Pipe at Right Angles 48 

A T Pipe at any Angle 50 

A T Pipe, the Collar to be smaller than the Main 

Pipe 52, 54 

A T Pipe at any Angle, the Collar to set on one side of 

the Main Pipe 56 

A Pipe to fit a flat Surface at any Angle, as the Side of 

a Roof of a Building 58 

A Pipe to fit two flat Surfaces, as the Roof of a Build- 
ing.. 60 

An Elbow at Right Angles. ': 62 

An Elbow Pattern at any Angle 64 

An Elbow in three Sections 66 

An Elbow in four Sections 68 

An Elbow in five Sections 70 

A Tapering Elbow 72 

An Oval Boiler Cover 75 

A Flange for a Pipe that goes on the Roof of a Building. 76 

Octagon or Square Top or Cover 78 

Steamer Cover 79 

An Ellipse or Oval, having two Diameters given 80 



CONTENTS. V 

An Ellipse with the Rule and Compasses, the Transverse 
and Conjugate Diameters being given, that is the 

Length and Width 81 

To find the Centre and the two Arcs of an Ellipse 82 

To find the Radius and Yersed Sine for a given Frustrum 

of a Cone 83 

Practical Geometry 84 

Decimal Equivalents to Fractional Parts of Lineal Meas- 
urement 91 

Definitions of Arithmetical Signs 92 

Mensuration of Surfaces 93 

Mensuration of Solids and Capacities -of Bodies 102 

Tables of Weights of Iron, Copper and Lead 106-110 

Tables of the Circumferences and Areas of Circles.. 111-119 
Sizes and Capacity of Tin-ware in form of Frustrum of a 
Cone, such as Pans, Dish Kettles, Pails, Coffee Pots, 
Wash Bowls, Dippers, Measures, Druggists' and Liquor 

Dealers' Measures 120-121 

American Lap Weled Iron Boiler Flues 122 

Table of Effects upon Bodies by Heat 122 

Weight of Water. 123 

Effects produced by Water in an Aeriform State 123 

Practical Properties of Water 124 

Effects produced by Water in its Natural State 124 

Effects of Heat at certain Temperatures 125 

Tempering . . . . : 125 

Effects produced by Air in its Natural and in a Rarefied 

State 126 

Table of the Expansion of Atmospheric Air by Heat 126 

Size, Length, Breadth and Weight of Tin Plates 127 

Crystallized Tin Plate 127 

List of Calibre and Weights of Lead Pipe 128 

Calibre and Weights of Fountains or Aqueduct Pipes.. . 128 
To Ascertain the Weights of Pipes of various Metals, 

and any Diameter required 129 

Weight of a Square Foot of Sheet Iron, Copper, and 

Brass, as per Birmingham Wire Gauge 129 

Recapitulation of Weights of Various Substances 130 



Vi CONTENTS. 

PRACTICAL EECEIPTS. 

Japanning and Varnishing. 131-138 

Tarnishes — Miscellaneous 138-155 

Lackers 155-157 

Cements * 158-162 

Miscellaneous Receipts 163-166 

Britannia 167-169 

Solders, etc 169-173 

Strength of Materials 174-178 



A CONE. 



To describe an Envelop for a Cone. 




Let ABI be the given cone. From I as centre, with the radius 
IA, describe the arc CD ; make CD ; equal in length to the cir- 
cumference of AB (which can be found by a reference to the 
table of the Circumferences of Circles ;) draw the lines CI and 
DI ; then the figure CDI will be that of the required surface 
of the cone. 

Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, drawing the 
lines paralled to CI and DI, as shown by the dotted lines. 



PRACTICAL EULES 



To describe a Frustrum of a Cone. 



Fig. 2. 




Let AB equal diameter of large end ; FH diameter of small 
end ; GK altitude. Produce AF and BH until they meet at E ; 
with E as centre, and the radii EF and EA, describe the arcs CD 
and IJ ; set off CD equal to that portion of the circumference oi 
AB required for a pattern ; draw the lines CI and DJ, cutting the 
centre at E. 

Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, drawing the lines 
parallel to CI and DJ, as shown by the dotted lines. 



Obs. The term altitude denotes perpendicular height ; as from 
G to K in Fig. 2. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



CAN TOP OR DECK FLANGE. 



To describe a Com Top or Beck Flange. 




Let AB equal diameter of can, or base of a flange ; CD di- 
ameter of opening in the top ; FG altitude. Produce AC and 
BD until they meet at E ; with E as centre, and the radii ED 
and EB, describe the curves IJ and HK ; set off IJ equal to the 
circumference of the base AB ; draw the lines IH and JK, cutting 
the centre at E. 

Edges to be allowed. 



PRACTICAL RULES 



FRUSTRUM OF A CONE. 



To describe a Pattern for, or an Envelop for a Frus- 
trum of a Cone. 

Fig. 4. 




Describe the right angle ABE ; make BD the altitude ; draw 
the line CD at right angle to BE; make AB equal one-half the 
diameter of the large end, CD one-half the diameter of the small 
end ; draw a line cutting the points A and C, and the line BE 
with E as a centre and the radius EC and EA describe the arcs 
EG and HI ; set off EG equal to that portion of the circumfer. 
ence of the smallest end required for a pattern, draw the lines 
HE and IG, cutting the centre at E. 

Edges for folding or laping to be allowed drawing the lines 
parallel to HF and IG. 

When the work is to be riveted, punch the holes for the rivets 
on the lines HF and IG. 

When the work is to be wired, or a flange laid off, it must be 
allowed as shown by the dotted lines over the arc HL 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



OVAL. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval article, 
to be in four Sections. 

Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as in fig. 
5, describe the sides as in fig. 6 and 7. 

Describe the right angle ABC, fig. 6 ; make BF the altitude, 
draw the line DF at right angle to BC ; make DF equal to AB in 
fig. 5 ; make AB equal to DF and the taper required on a side, 
draw a line cutting the points A and D, and the line BO. 

On any right line, as AB in fig. 7, with the radii CD and CA, 
describe the arcs EF and CD, set off EF equal to EBF in fig. 5 ; 
draw the line3 CE and DF, cutting the centre at B. 

Edges to be allowed. 

Fig. 6, make EF equal to CD in fig. 5 ; make GB equal to EF, 
and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the points G 
and E, and the line BC. 

On any right line, as AB in fig. 7, with the radii HE and HG, 
describe the arcs IK and GH ; set off" IK equal to FDG in fig. 5, 
draw the lines GI and HK, cutting the centre at L. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal on all sides. 



PRACTICAL KULES 




Pig. 6. 




FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



Pig. 7. 




10 



PRACTICAL RULES 




Pig. 9. 




FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



11 




12 PRACTICAL EULES 



OVAL. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval article^ 
to be in two Sections. 

Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as in fig. 
8, then describe the body as in fig. 9 and 10. 

Describe the right angle ABC, fig. 9 ; make BE the altitude, 
draw the line DE at right angle to BC ; make DE equal to AB in 
fig. 8 ; make AB equal to DE and the taper required on a side, 
draw a line cutting the points A and D, and the line BC. 

On any right line, as AB in fig. 10, with the radius CD and CA, 
describe the arcs EF and CD, set off EF equal to FBE in fig. 8 ; 
draw the lines CE and DF, cutting the centre at B. 

Fig. 9, make GE equal to CD in fig. 8 ; make FB equal to GE, 
and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the points F 
and G, and the line BC, with the radius HG, and in fig. 10, E and 
F as centres, cut the lines CB and DB, as at L and M, with L and 
M as centres describe the arcs FK and EH ; also, the arcs DI and 
CG ; set off FK and EH, equal to ED in fig. 8 ; draw the lines 
IK and GH, cutting the centres at M and L. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal on all sides. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 18 

OVAL. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval article, 
to be in two Sections. 

Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as in fig. 
11, then describe the body as in figs. 12 and 13 ; describe the right 
angle ABC, fig. 12; make BE the altitude, *draw the line DE at 
right angle to BC ; make DE equal to FC in fig. 11; make AB 
equal to DE and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting 
the points A and D, and the line BO. 

On any right line, as AB in fig. 13, with the radius CD and CA, 
describe the arcs CD and EF, set off CD equal to CD in fig. 11 ; 
draw the lines EC and FD, cutting the centre at B. 

Fig. 12, make FE equal to AC in fig. 11 ; make GB equal to FE, 
»uid the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the points G 
end F, and the line BC, with the radius JF, and in fig. 13, D as 
a centre, cut the line FB, as at K, with K as a centre describe the 
arc DH; also, the arc FG ; set off DH equal to BC in fig. 11 ; 
draw the line GH, cutting the centre at K. Fig. 12, make HE 
equal to GE in fig. 11 ; make IB equal to HE, and the taper re- 
quired on a side, draw a line cutting the points I and H, and the 
line BC with the radius KH, and in fig. 13, C as a centre, cut the 
line EB, as at L, with L as a centre, describe the arc 10 ; also, the 
arc JE ; set off IC equal to DE, in fig. 11 ; draw the line JI, cut'' 
ting the centre at L. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal oa all sides* 



14 



PRACTICAL BULES 

Pig. 12. 




FOE DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



15 



Pig. 13. 




10 PRACTICAL RULES 

OVAL. 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval article. 

Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as in fig. 
14; describe the body as in figs. 15 and 16 ; describe the right 
angle ABC, fig. 15; make BE the altitude, draw the line DE at 
right angle to BC ; make FE equal to HG in fig. 14 ; make GB 
equal to FE and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting 
the points G and F, and the line BC. 

On any right line, as AB in fig. 16, with the* radius HF and HG, 
describe the arcs CD and EF, set off CD equal to IGF in fig. 14 ; 
draw the lines EC and FG, cutting the centre at G. 

Fig. 15, make DE equal to AB in fig. 14 ; make AB equal to DE, 
and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the points A 
and f>, and the line BO, with the radius CD, and in fig. 16, with 
I and H as centres, cut the lines GL and GM, as at M and L, with 
M and L as centres ; describe the arcs HI and HI ; also, the arcs 
JK and JK; set off HI and HI equal to IB, in fig. 14 ; draw the 
lines JH and KI, cutting the centres Lat and M. Fig. 15, make 
IE equal to CD in fig. 14 ; make JB equal to IE, and the taper 
required on a side, draw a line cutting the points J a*hd I, and the 
line BC with the radius KI, and in fig. 16, and N as centres, 
cut the lines LB and MB, as at R and S, with R and S as centres ; 
describe the arcs NO and NO ; also, the arcs PQ and PQ ; set off 
NO and NO equal to BD in fig. 14 ; draw the lines QO and PN, 
cutting the centres at S and R. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal on all sides. The pattern can be cut in 
any number of sections. 





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FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 19 



OVAL. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Ob- 
long article, the sides to be Straight with 
Quarter Circle corners, to be in two 

Sections. 

Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as in fig. 
17; the body as in figs. 18 and 19; describe the right angle 
ABC, fig. 18 ; make BE the altitude, draw the line DE at right 
angle to BC ; make DE equal to EC in fig. 17 ; make AB equal 
to DE and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the 
points A and D and the line BC« 

Fig. 19, make AD and BE equal to AD in fig. 18 ; make AB 
equal to AB in fig. 17 ; draw the lines DM and EN, fig. 18 with 
the radii CD, and in fig. 19, A and B as centres, cut the lines DM 
and EN, as at M and N, with M and N as centres ; describe the 
arcs BC and AI ; also, the arcs EF and DH ; set off BC and AI 
equal to BC, in fig. 17 ; draw the lines HI and FC, cutting the 
centres M and N. Draw the lines FG and CL at right angle te 
FN ; also, the line KH and JI at right angle to HM ; make CL and 
JI equal to one-half off CD, in fig. 17, draw the lines KJ and GL 
at right angle to KH and FG. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper to be equal on all sides. 



20 



PRACTICAL RULES 




Fig. 19. 



Fig. 17. 



Fig. 18. 




FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 21 



OVAL. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Ob- 
long article, the sides to be Straight, one end to 
be a Semi-circle, the other end to be Straight with 
quarter Circle Corners, to be in Two Sections. 

Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as in fig. 
20 ; the body as in figs. 21 and 22 ; describe the right angle ABC, 
fig. 21 : make BG the altitude, draw the line DG at right angle to 
BO : make DG equal to AF in fig 20 ; make AB equal to DG and 
the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the points A and 
D, and the line BC ; make FG equal to GD in fig. 20 ; make EB 
equal to FG and the taper required on a side draw a line cutting 
the points E and F and the line B C. 

Fig. 22, make AC and BD equal to DA in fig. 21 ; make CD and 
AB equal to BC in fig. 20; draw the lines CK and DL. Fig. 21 ; 
with the radii CD, and in fig. 22; A as a centre, cut the line CK 
as at K with K as a centre ; describe the arc AI, also, the arc C J ; 
set off AI equal to AB, in fig. 20, draw the line JI, cutting the 
centre at K. 

Fig. 21, with the radii HF, and in fig. 22, B as a centre cut the 
line DL, as at L, with L as a centre ; describe the arc BF, also the 
arc DE ; set off BF equal to CD, in fig. 20 ; draw the line EF, cut- 
ting the centre at L ; draw the lines FG and EH at right angle to 
EL ; make FG, equal to DE, in fig. 20 ; draw the line HG at right 
angle to EH. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper to be equal on all sides. 



22 



PRACTICAL RULES 




Pig. 20. A 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 23 



OVAL. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Ob» 
long article, the sides to be Straight, with ScmU 
circle ends, to be in Two Sections. 

Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as in fig. 
23 ; the body as in figs. 24 and 25. 

Describe the right angle ABC, fig. 24: make BE the altitude, 
draw the line DE at right angle to BC : make DG equal to AB in 
fig 23; make AB equal to DE and the taper required on a side, 
draw a line cutting the points A and D, and the line EC, fig. 25 ; 
make AC and BD equal to AD in fig. 24. 

Make AB and CD equar to DC in fig. 23 ; draw the lines CI 
and DJ, fig. 24 ; with the radii CD, and in fig. 25 ; A and B as 
centres, cut the lines CI and D J as at I and J, with I and J as cen- 
tres ; describe the arcs AH and BF ; also, the arcs CG and DE ; 
setoff AH and BF equal to CB, in fig. 23, draw the lines Gil 
and EF, cutting the centre at I and J. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper to be equal on all sides. 

In a large article it may be more convenient to lay out the End- 
pieces to fit the Semi-circles, and join them to the sides, as at D 
and C, in fig. 83. 



24 



PRACTICAL RULJES 




fig. 23. k 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 25 



COVERING OF CIRCULAR ROOFS^&e. 



Circular Roofs may be covered upon two different principles *. 



First 3Iethod. 

Assume the vertical section, or axis, to be divided into a num* 
ber of equal parts, and the roof, or figure, cut by planes through 
the points of division parallel to the base ; and then consider the 
portions of the figure as so many frustrums of a cone ; the surface 
of each frustrum can then be determined as by fig. 26, page 26. 

Second Method. 

Divide the circumference of the base into a number of equal 
part9, and assume sections to be made perpendicular through these 
points of division ; then estimate the surface of each of these di». 
visions on the .surface of the.fi^ure. 



26 



PRACTICAL RULES 



To Cover a Dome by the First Method. 




Let ABC, fig. 26, be the section of a dome. Draw the axis 
DB ; produce to J ; divide the curve of one- half the figure into 
equal parts, as EFG and H, the width of these divisions being the 
width required by that of the metal with which the dome is to be 
covered ; produce AE, EF, FG, GH, and HB, severally until they 
intersect the axis BD ; then [for example] from the point I, with 
the radii IG and IF, describe the* curves GM, FN ; then set off that 
portion of the circumference of the base FL required for a pattern 
to cover the course FG. 

In the same manner, the covering for the other portion can be 
found. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



27 



To Cover a Dome by the Second Method. 




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k A 



Let ABC, fig. 27, be the section of a dome ; then the length 
of a course of covering is obtained as follows : The length of the 
course BF is equal to the curve AB, and EG the breadth of it ; 
join ED, and the lines 1, 2, 3, and 4, intersected thereby, will be 
the half breadth (for the vertical BD) of the course at the corres- 
ponding lines on BF, through which points a line can be drawn 
which will give the form of the course required. 



28 



PRACTICAL RWLEB 



To ascertain the Outlines of a Course of Covering 
to a Dome, without reference to a Section of ike 
Dome. 

Fig. 28> 




Lot AB be tho breadth of the course. Bisect it at B by the 
perpendicular CE ; make BE equal to the length of the arc from 
the base of the dome to the top of it (which may be found either 
by measurement or calculation); divide the semi-circle ACD into 
any number of equal parts, and draw the lines parallel to BD ; 
divide BE into the same number of equal parts, and draw lines 
parallel to AD ; mark ordinates on each side of BE ; as 1, 2, 3, 
and 4 equal to the lines of BCD, and a curve drawn through thtir 
terminations I, 2, 8, and 4 on both sides will give the outline of 
the course. 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



29 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Square Article. 
Fig. 29. 




Erect the perpendicular line GE ; draw the line AB at ri^at 
angle to GE ; make EF equal to the Slant height, and draw the 
line CD parallel to AB ; make AB equal in length to one side of 
the base ; make CD equal in length to one side of the top or 
smallest end, draw the lines AG and BG, cutting the points AC 
and BD, G as a centre with the radii GC and GA. Describe the 
arcs KM and JI; set off on-the arc JI, JA, BH, and HI equal in 
length to AB, and draw the lines JG, HG, and IG, also, the lines 
JA, BH, HI, and KC, DL, LM. 

Edges to be allowed. 



80 



PRACTICAL RULES 



SQUARE. 



To describe a Pattern fqr a Square Tapering article^ 
to be in Two Sections. 




Erect the perpendicular line EF equal to the Slant height of 
the articles ; draw the line AB at right angle to EF ; draw the 
line CD parallel to AB ; make AB equal in length to one side of 
the base ; make CD equal in length to one side of the top or 
smallest end ; draw the lines AC and BD, C and D as centres, 
with a radii equal to one-half the difference of the two ends, as 
from B to G ; describe the arcs I and H ; draw the right angle 
lines IA J and HBK ; set off JA and KB equal to FB, and draw 
the lines JL and KM at right angles to JA and KB ; also, the 
lines LC and MD at right angles to LJ and MK. 

Edges to be allowed. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



31 



SQUARE BASE WITH A CIRCULAR TOP. 



To describe a Pattern for Tapering article, the Base 
to be Square, and the Top a Circle to be in two 

Sections, 

Fig. 31. 




Erect the perpendicular line NF ; draw the line AB at right 
angle to NF ; make EF equal to the Slant height, and draw the 
line CD parallel to AB ; make a AB equal in length to one side 
of the base ; make CD equal in length to one-fourth the circum- 
ference of the top, and draw the lines AC and BD, C and D as 
centres, with a radii equal to one-half the difference of the two 
ends ; describe the arcs I and H, draw the right angle lines IAJ 
and HBK ; set off JA and KB equal to FB, and draw the lines JN 
and KN at right angles to JA and KB, Jtf as a centre with the 
radii NE describe the arc LEM. 

Edges to be allowed. 



92 PRACTICAL RULES 



RECTANGLE BASE WITH A SQUARE TOP. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering article, the 
Base to be a Rectangle, and the Top Square, to be 
in Two Sections. 

Erect the perpendicular line KC, fig. 32 ; draw the line AB at 
right angle to KC ; make KC equal to the Slant height, and draw 
the line DE parallel to AB ; make AB equal in length to the longest 
side of the base ; make DE equal in length to one side of the top ; 
draw the lines AD and BE ; make CG equal to one-ha f f the short- 
est side of the base, D and E as centres, with a radii equal to one- 
half the difference of the top and the shortest side of the base, 
as from G to F ; describe the arcs J and I ; draw the right angle 
lines JAL and IBM ; set off AL and BM equal in length to CG, 
and draw the lines MN and LO at right angle to BM and LA ; 
also, the lines NE and OD at right angle to NM and OL. 

Edges to be allowed. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS, 



33 




34 PRACTICAL RULES 



RECTANGLE BASE WITH A CIRCULAR 
TOP. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the 
Base to be a Rectangle^ and the Top a Circle, to be 
in Two Sections. 

Erect the perpendicular line DO, fig 33 ; draw the line AB at 
right angle to* DC ; make CE equal to the Slant height, and draw 
the line FG parallel to AB ; make AB equal in length to the 
longest side of the base; make FG fcqual in length to one- 
fourth the circumference of the top ; draw the lines AF and 
BG ; make CK equal to one-half the shortest side of the base ; 
erect the line LG parallel to EC, F and G as centres, with the 
radii KL. Describe the arcs I and H ; draw the right angle lines 
HBN and IAM; set off BN and AM equal in length to CK, and 
draw the lines MD and ND at right angles to MA and NB, D as 
a centre with the radii DE, describe the arc OED. 

Edges to be allowed. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



35 




36 PRACTICAL RULES. 



EBCTANGLE. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the 
Top and Base to be a Rectangle, to be in Two 
Sections. 

Erect the perpendicular line FE, fig. 34 ; draw the line AB at 
right angle to EE ; make EE equal to the slant height of the 
article, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; make AB equal in 
length to the longest side of the base ; nfake CD equal in length 
to the longest side of the top ; draw the lines AC and BD ; make 
GH equal in length to the shortest side of the base ; make JI equal 
in length to the shortest side of the top ; draw the line HI, also, 
erect the line KI parallel to FE, C and D as centres, with the radii 
HK ; describe the arcs M and L ; draw the right angle lines LBO, 
and MAN ; set off BO and AN equal in length to EH, and draw 
the lines OR and NP at right angles to OB and NA; also, the 
lines RD and PC at right angles to RO and IN. 

Edges to be allowed. 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



37 




38 PRACTICAL RULES 



OCTAGON. 



To describe a Pattern for Tapering Octagon Top or 
Cover. 

Erect the perpendicular line GE, fig. 35 ; draw the line AB at 
right angle to GE ; make FE equal to the Slant height of the ar- 
ticle, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; make AB equal in 
length to one of the longest sides of the base ; make CD equal 
in length to one of the longest sides of the top, and draw the 
lines AG and BG, cutting the points AC and BD, G as a centre, 
with the radii GC and GA describe the arcs SO and PN ; set off 
QR, HJ and LN equal to AB ; set off PQ, RA, BH and JL equal 
in length to one of the shortest sides of the base ; draw the lines 
PS, QT, RU, &c., cutting the centre at G» draw the lines PQ, 
QR, ST, TU, &c. 

Edges to be allowed. 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



39 



Pig. 35. 




40 



PRACTICAL RULES 



GUTTER MITER JOINTS. 



To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint at Right 
angles for a Semicircle Gutter. 




Pig. 37, 



<u 












/ 











A10 9 8T 654321B 

Let the semi-circle ACB, fig. 36, be the breadth and depth of the 
gutter ; draw the line AB ; draw the lines AF and BE at right angle 
to AB ; draw the line DE parallel to AB ; make DF equal to AB, 
and draw the line FE ; devide the semicircle into any number of 
equal parts from the points; draw lines parallel to AF as 1, 2, 3, &c, 
then set off the line AB, fig. 37, equal in length to the semi circle 
ACB ; erect the lines BD and AC at right angle to AB ; set off on 
on the line AB, fig. 37, the same number of equal distances as in 
the semicircle from the points ; draw lines parallel to BD, as 1, 2, 8, 
&c, make BD equal in length to AF, fig. 36 ; and AC equal in 
length to BE ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same 
figure as 1, 2, 3, &c, then a line traced through the points will 
form the pattern required. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



41 



MITER JOINTS. 



To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint at any 
Angle for a Semi-circle Gutter. 



Fig. 38. 



Pig. 39. 



A 










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1 

i 






B 


^ 


J y 


1 




j»^ 


r 2 







rh 


J) 



(!) 



Let ABC, fig. 38, be the breadth and depth of the gutter ; 
draw the line AC ; draw the lines EG and DH ; the angle required 
draw the line ED cutting the points E and D ; divide the semi- 
circle into any number of equal parts, from the points draw lines 
parallel to AE, as 1, 2, 3, &c. Then set off the line AB, fig. 39, 
equal in length to the semicircle ABC ; erect the lines AC and 
BD at right angle to AB ; set off on the line AB, the same number 
of equal distances as in the semi-circle ABC ; from the points 
draw lines parallel to BD, as 1, 2, 3, &c. Make BD equal to EA, 
and AC equal to DC ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the 
same figures as 1, 2, 3, &c, then a line traced through the points 
will form the pattern. 



42 PEACTICAL KULES 



MITER JOINTS. 



To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint for an O & 
Gutter at Might Angles. 

Let ABCD, fig. 40, be the given gutter; divide the curved 
line BC into any number of equal parts from the points ; draw 
lines parallel to AD, as 1, 2, 3, &c. ; then set offtho right angle 
line ABE, fig. 41 ; make BF equal to AB, and draw the line CF 
parallel to AB ; make AB and CF equal in length to AD, and 
draw the line AC ; make FD, equal in length to the curved 
line BC ; set off on the line FD the same number of equal dis- 
tances, as in the curved line BC ; from the points draw lines paral- 
lel to CF, as 1, 2, 3, &c; make CF equal to BE, also, each of the 
parallel lines bearing the same figures, as 1, 2, 3, &c. ; make DE 
equel to CD, then a line traced through the points will form the 
pattern. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



43 




8 — c 



44 PRACTICAL RULES 



CORNICE. 



To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joinffor an O G- 
Cornice at Right angles, also an Offset. 

Describe the right angle line AFE, fig. 42 ; let ABODE be the 
given cornice ; divide the curved line BCH into any number of 
equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AF, as 1, 2, 
3, &o. Then set off the right angle ABCF, fig. 43 ; make CD 
equal to AB ; make DG equal in length to the curved line BCH ; 
make GE equal to HD; make EF equal to DE ; set off on the 
line DG the same number of equal distances as in the curved line 
BCH; from the points draw lines parallel to BC, as I, 2, 3, K, 
H, &c. Make BC and ID equal to AF ; also, each of the parallel 
lines bearing the same figures as 2, 3, 4, &c. ; make KG and HE 
equal to DE ; then a line traced through the points B, I, 2, 3, 4, 
&c. ; KBF will form the pattern for a Miter Joint. 

When there is to be an offset or projection at right angles, let 
AB, fig. 44, be the depth of the offset or projection ; make each 
of the parallel lines the same in length as AB, LI, 22, 83, &c, 
then a line traced through the points will form the pattern. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



45 



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46 PRACTICAL RULES 



OCTAGON. 



To describe a Pattern for an Octagon G Lamp 
Top or Cover, 

Describe a circle that will cut the required Octagon, fig. 45 ; 
draw a line that will cut the centre of two sections, as AI ; erect the 
perpendicular line HF ; let ABCDEFJ be the given top or cover ; 
divide the curved lines BO and EF into any number of equal 
parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to FH, as 1, 2, 3, &c, 
H, 1, 2, 3, &c. 

Set off the line AF, fig. 46 ; draw the line GE at right angle to 
AF ; make AB equal to AB in fig. 45 ; make BO equal in length 
to the curved line BC ; divide BC into the same number of equal 
distances, as in the curved line BO ; from the points draw lines 
parallel to GE ; make CD equal to CD, and DH equal to DE ; 
make HF equal to the curved line EF ; divide HF into the same 
number of equal distances, as in the curved line EF ; from the 
points draw lines parallel to GE ; make AGAE and BIBJ equal to 
GA ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, H, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; then a line 
. traced through the points will form the pattern. 

A Top may be described in any number of Sections by this 
Rule. 



FOE DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 
Fig. 45. 



47 













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Fig. 46. 




48 F^ACTICAL BULJuS 



PIPES. 



To describe a T Pipe at Right angles. 

Let ABCD, fig. 47, be the length and diameter of the T ; de- 
scribe the semi-circle CED ; divide the semicircle into any num- 
ber of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AC, as 

I, 2, 3, &c. ; then set off the line ABC, fig. 48, equal in length to 
the circumference of the Pipe AB ; erect the lines AD, BE and 
CF; set off on each side of" BE the same number of equal dis- 
tances, as in the semi-circle CED ; from the points draw lines 
parallel to BE, as 11, 22, 33, &c. ; make AD, BE and CF equal to 
AC ; also, each of the parallel lines, bearing the same numbers as 

II, 22, 33, &c. ; then a line traced through the points will form 
the pattern required. 

Edges to be allowed for folding or riveting. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



49 








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50 PIUCTICAL BULES 



PIPES. 



To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any angle. 

Draw the line AE, fig. 49 ; erect the line AB, the angle re- 
quired ; also, the line ED parallel to AB ; make BD equal to the 
diameter of the Pipe ; describe the semicircle BCD ; draw the 
line FG parallel to BD ; divide the semicircle into any number of 
equal parts from the points ; draw lines parallel to AB, as 1, 2, 
8, &c. 

Set off the line ABC, fig. 50, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the Pipe ; erect the lines AE, BD and CF at right angles 
to AC ; set o ff on each side of BD the same number of equal dis- 
tances, as in the semicircle BCD, and from the points draw lines 
parallel to BD, as 11, 22, 38, &c. Make BD equal to AB, and 
EA and CF equal to ED ; also, each of the parallel lines, bearing 
the same figures as 11, 22, 83, &c. Make GI and HJ equal to 
GD; also, each of the lines bearing the same figures as 11, 11, 
22, 22, &c. ; then a line traced through the points will form the 
required pattern. 

Edges to be allowed 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



51 




-Pig. 50. 



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' "2 



4-" 



Vfi. 



A387654-32 1 B1234 5 i 7 8 K 



52 



PRACTICAL RULES 



PIPES 



To describe a Pattern for a TPipe, the Collar to be 
Smaller than the Main Pipe. 



Pig. 51. 




Let the circle OH, fig. 51, equal the large pipe, AB, CD, the 
Branch or Collar ; describe the semicircle AEB ; divide the semi- 
circle into any number of equal parts ; from the points, draw 
lines parallel to AC, as 1, 2, 8, &c. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



53 



Pig. 52. 



1 1? 




Set off the line ABC, fig. 52, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the Collar AB ; erect the perpendicular lines AD, BE and 
CF; set off on each of BE, the same number of equal distances as 
in the semicircle ; from the points draw lines parallel to BE, as 
1, 1, 2, 2, &c. ; make AD, BE and CF equal to AC and BD ; also, 
each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 1, 1, 2, 2, 
8, 3, &c, then a line traced through the points will form the pat- 
tern. 



Edges to be allowed. 



54 



PRACTICAL RULES , 



PIPES. 



To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any angle, the 
Collar to be Smaller than the Main Pipe, 



Fig. 53. 



Ctt 




Let CE, fig. 53, be the diameter of the collar, and AB the angle 
required ; describe the semicircle CDE ; make CF and EH of equal 
length, with a radii equal to one-half the diameter of the large 
pipe : describe the arc FH ; divide the semicircle into any num- 
ber of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AC, as 
1, 2, &c. There must be an odd number of lines, as in the dia- 
gram, so that one of the lines run through the centre of the semi- 
circle. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



55 



Pig. 54. 





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39 


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Set off the line ABC, fig. 54, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the collar, CE ; erect the lines AD, BE and CF ; set off 
on eaoh side of BE the same number of equal distances, as in the 
semicircle, and from the points draw lines parallel to BE, as 11, 
22, &c. ; make BE equal to AC in fig. 53 ; make AD and CF 
equal to BE ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same 
figures ; make GI and HJ equal to CF ; also, each of the parallel 
lines bearing the same figures as 11, 11, 22, 22, &c. 

A line traced through the last points will form the pattern, 

Edges to be allowed. 



56 



PRACTICAL RULES 



PIPES. 



To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any angle, 
the Collar to set on one side of the Main Pipe. 




Let the circle FE, fig. 55, equal large pipe or boiler ; make 
AB equal to the diameter of the collar or branch pipe, BE the 
angle required ; describe the semicircle ACB ; divide the semi- 
oircle into any number of equal parts ; from the points draw lines 
parallel to BE, as 1, 2, 3, &c. 



FOE DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



57 



Pig. 56, 




rr 



X 



is: 



Set off the line ABO, fig. 56, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the collar AB ; erect the perpendicular lines AD, BE and 
CH; set off on each side of BE the same number of equal dis- 
tances, as in the semicircle ACB ; from the points draw lines par- 
allel to BE ; make BE equal to EB; make AD and CF equal to 
DA ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 
11, 22, 33, &c. ; then a line traced through the points will form 
the pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 



PRACTICAL RULES 



PIPES. 



To describe a Pattern for a Pipe to fit a Flat 
Surface at any Angle, as the side of the Hoof of 
a Building. 



Pig. 57. 




Let AB, fig. 57, equal the angle of the roof of a building; let 
CE, FB equal the pipe; draw the line CE ; describe the semi- 
circle CDE ; divide the semicircle into any number of equal parts ; 
from the points draw lines parallel to EB, as 2, 8, 4, &c. 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



59 



Pig. 58. 



Z. 



/L 



f 



V 



- \ ■< 



Then set off the line ABC, fig. 58, equal in length to the cir- 
cumference of the cylinder CE ; erect the perpendicular lines AD, 
BE and CF ; set off on each side of BE the same number of equal 
distances, as in the semicircle CDE ; from the points draw lines 
parallel to BE ; make BE equal to BE ; make AD and CF equal 
to FC ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same number 
a& 22, 33, 44, &c. ; then a line traced through the points will form 
the pattern. 



Edges to be allowed. 



60 



PRACTICAL RULES 



PIPES. 



2 y o describe a Pattern for a Pipe to jit two Flat 
JSurJ ace&i as the Hoof of a Building. 



Pig. 59. 




Let ABC, fig. 59, equal the pitch of a roof ; let DF, IH, be the 
pipe ; draw the line BG parallel to HF ; draw the line DF at right 
angle to HF ; describe the semicircle DEF ; divide one-half the 
semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from the points draw 
lines parallel to FH, as 2, 3, 4, &c. 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



61 



Pig. 80. 



■ Hr 



-v 



A. 



X 



~2L 



Set off the line ABO, fig. 60, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the pipe DF ; divide the line ABC into four equal parts, 
and erect the lines AD, 01, BF, 01, CE ; set off on e'ach side of 
01, 01, the same number of equal distances as in one-half the 
semicircle ; from the points draw lines parallel to BF ; make AD, 
BF and CE equal to HF ; make 01, 01 equal to BG ; also, each 
of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 22, 22, 33, 33, 
&o. ; then a line traced through the points will form the pattern. 



Edges to be allowed 



62 



PRACTICAL RULES 



ELBOWS. 



To describe an Elbow at Right Angles. 
Fig. 61. 




A3 8 7 lb 



Let ABCD, fig. 61, be the given elbow; draw the line AB at 
right angles to BC ; draw the line FC ; describe the semicircle 
AGB ; divide the semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from 
the points draw lines parallel to BC, as 1, 2, 3, &c. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



63 







Fig. 62. 








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n 






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fl> 






V — 




CO 


/ 


in 


/ 


CM 


Id 


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CD 




"s ^ 


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V 


\ 


n 






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X- 




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> 




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00 


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— p-i 



Set off the line ABC, fig. 62, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the elbow AB ; erect the perpendicular lines AD, BE and 
CF ; set off on each side of BE the same number of equal dis- 
tances, as in the semicircle AGB ; from the points draw lines par- 
allel to BE ; make BE equal to BC ; make AD and CF equal to 
AF ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 
11, 22, 33, &c. ; then a line traced through the points will form 
the pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 

Patterns for Elbows may be described at any angle, by any of 
the Rules for cutting ]?lbow patterns ; in laying out Elbow pat- 
terns let AB equal diameter of the Elbow, and BCD the angle. 



e4 



PRACTICAL RULES 



ELBOWS, 



To describe an Elbow Pattern at any angle. 




A123 4 5 6 78 S10B 



Let ABCD, fig. 63, be the given Elbow ; draw the line AB at 
right angle to BF ; draw the line EF ; describe the semicircle 
AGB ; divide the semicircle AGB into any number of equal parts ; 
from the points draw lines parallel to BF, as 1, 2, 3, &c. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



65 



Pig. 64. 



J- 



<Nl 



Set off the line ABC, fig. 64, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the Elbow AB ; erect the perpendicular lines AF, BE and 
CD ; set off on each side of BE the same number of equal dis- 
tances, as in the semicircle AGB ; from the points draw lines 
parallel to BE, as 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, &c. ; make BE equal to BF ; 
make AF and CD equal to AE ; also, each of the parallel lines 
bearing the same figures as 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, &c. 

Then a line traced through the point will form the pattern. 
Edges to be allowed. 



66 



PRACTICAL RULES 



ELBOWS. 



To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Three Sec- 
tions. 




Let ABED, fig. 65, be the given elbow ; draw the line FC ; make 
FK equal to one-half the diameter of the elbow, with F as a cen- 
tro ; describe the arcs GL ; divide the arc GL into four equal parts ; 
draw the lines FH and FJ ; also, the line JH ; draw the line AB 
at right angles to BC ; describe the semicircle AMB ; divide the 
semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from the points draw 
lines parallel to BH, as 1, 2, 3, &c. 



3?0R DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



61 



Pig. 66. 




Otr 



— Pi — 



<%> 



~ J 



Set off the line ABC, fig. 66, equal in length to the circumference 
of the elbow AB ; erect the perpendicular lines AD, BH and CE ; 
set off on each side of BH the same number of equal distances as 
in the semicircle AMB ; from the points draw lines parallel to BH ; 
make BH equal to BH ; make AD and CE equal to AN ; also, each 
of the parallel lines bearing the same number as 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, &c. ; 
then a line traced through the points will form one of the sections ; 
make DF and EG equal to HJ ; then reverse section No. 1, and 
place D at G and E at F, and trace a line fron G to F, this will 
form section No. 2 and 3. 

Edges to be allowed. 



68 



PRACTICAL RULES 



ELBOWS IN FOUR SECTIONS. 



To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Four 
Sections. 

Fig. 67. 




A*W « 5 4 3 213 



Let ABED, fig. 6*7, be the given elbow ; draw the line FC ; 
make FM equal in length to one-half the diameter of the elbow, 
with F as a centre ; describe the arc KL ; divide the arc KL into 
three equal parts ; draw the lines FH and FI ; also the line IH di- 
vide the section HK into two equal parts, and draw the line FG ; 
draw the line AB at right angles to BC ; describe the semicircle 
ANB ; divide the semicircle into any number of equal parts, from 
the points draw lines parallel to BC, as 1, 2, 3, &c. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



69 



Pi 



lg - 



68. 



1 


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o 


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i 


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i 


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Set off the line ABO, fig. 68, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of elbow AB ; erect the lines AF, BD and CE ; set off on 
each side of the line BD the same number of equal distances as in 
the semicircle ANB ; from the points draw lines parallel to BD as 
1, 1, 2, 2, &c. ; make BD equal to BG ; make AF and CE equal to 
AJ ; also, each of the parallel lines, bearing the same number as 
1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, &c. ; then a line traced through the points will 
form the first section ; make FG and E J equal to HI ; reverse sec- 
tion No. 1 ; place E at G and F at J ; trace a line from G to J ; 
make GH and JI equal to PO, fig. 67, or to DK, fig, 68 ; take Sec. 
No. 1, place F at H and E at I, and trace a line from H to I, this 
forms Sec. No. 3 and 4. 

Edges to be allowed. 



70 



PRACTICAL RULES 



ELBOWS. 



To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Five 
Sections. 

Fig. 69. 




Let ABED, fig. 69, be the given elbow ; draw the line FC ; 
make FL equal in length to one-half the diameter of the elbow, 
with F as a centre ; describe the arc GM ; divide the arc GM into 
four equal parts, and draw the lines FJ and FH ; also, the line IH ; 
divide the section GH into two equal parts, and draw the line FK ; 
draw the line AB at right angle to BC ; describe the semicircle 
ANB ; divide the semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from 
the points draw lines parallel to BC, as 1, 2, 3, &c. 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTEB2TS. 



n 



Pig. 70. 



t 
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1 








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5 


6 


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a 


c 





Set off the line ABO, fig. TO, equal in length to the circumfer- 
ence of the elbow AB ; erect the perpendicular lines AL, BD and 
CK ; set off on each side of BD the same number of equal dis- 
tances as in the semicircle ANB ; from the points draw lines paral- 
lel to BD as 1,1, 2,2, &c. ; make BD equal to BK; make AF and 
CE equal to AO -/also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same 
number, as 1,1, 2,2, 3,3 &c. ; then a line traced through the points 
will form Sec. 1; make FG and EH equal to HI ; reverse Sec. 1, 
place E at G and F at H, and trace a line from G to H ; make GJ 
and HI equal DM in fig. TO ; take Sec. 1 and place E at I and F 
at J, and trace a line from J to I ; make JL and IK equal to III ; 
reverse Sec. 1, and place E at L and F at K, and trace a line "from 
L to K, this completes Sec. No. 4 and 5 ; this completes the pat- 
terns; when elbows are to be of heavy iron and riveted, punch the 
holes for the rivets on the lines FE, GH, JI and LK, allowing for 
the lap each side on sections No. 2, 3, and 4. 
7 



12 PRACTICAL RULES 



ELBOWS. 



To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Elbow. 

Let AB and 'CD, fig. 71, equal large end of elbow, DHB the 
angle ; make HF equal CG, and EF equal AB ; make JK equal 
the email end of the elbow ; draw the lines BK and AJ, continue 
the lines until they intersect at I; describe the semicircles AB 
and JK ; divide the semicircles into the same number of equal 
parts ; from the points draw lines, as 1, 2, 3, &c. 

On any line, as AB, fig. 72, with the radii IK and IB; describe 
the arcs HI and CD ; set off CAD equal in length to the circum- 
ference of the large end AB ; drw the lines CB and DB ; set off 
on each side of AB the same number of equal distances as in the 
semicircle AB ; from the points draw lines cutting the centre at 
B ; make AE equal to BL ; make CF and DGr equal to AM ; also > 
each of the lines bearing the same figure as 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, &c, then 
a lipe traced through the points will form the pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 



FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



19 




■u 



PBACTICAL ROXJES 




FOB DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



IB 



BOILER COVER. 



To describe cm Oval Boiler Cover. 

Pig 73. 

c 



V e 6 

hI f 



Erect the line DC ; make FD equal to one-half the lengtn of 
the boiler bottom before the edge is turned ; describe the circle 
HDI one-eight of an inch larger in diameter than the breadth of 
the bottom; let FG be three-eights of an inch; then apply the 
corner of the square on the line AB, allowing the blade to cut the 
circle at I and the tongue at the point G ; draw the lines GB, BH, 
also the lines GA, AH ; allow one-eight of an inch for an edge, 
as shown by the dotted lines, the cover will be the same size as 
the bottom or pit. 



70 



PRACTICAL BULKS 



FLANG& 



To describe a Pattern for a Flange for a Pipe 
that goes on the Hoof of a Building ; as Jig. 59* 



Fig 74. 



Fig. 75 




Let ABC, fig. 74, be the pitch of the roof; make DE equal to 
the diameter of the pipe ; describe the circle FG ; make FG the 
same in diameter as the pipe ; draw the line FG ; set off on the 
line FO any number of equal parts ; from the points draw lines at 
right angle to FG as 1, 2, &c. 



POR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



w 



Pig. 76. 




Set off the line HI, fig. 76, equal in length to DBE in fig. 74 ; 
set off on the line HI the same number of equal parts as in the 
line FG f from the points draw lines at right angle to HI ; set off 
on each side of HI the same distance as on each side of the line 
FG in fig. 75, as 1, 1, 2, 2, &c. ; a line traced through the points 
will form the piece to be cut out ; when there is to be an edge 
turned up, it must be allowed inside of the line traced. The same 
rule is applied to describe a pattern for a flange for fig. 57 ; make 
HI, fig. 76, equal BF, fig. 57, then proceed the same as described 
above. 



78 PRACTICAL RULES 



OCTAGON OR SQUARE TOP OR COVER. 



To describe an Octagon or Square Top or Cover. 
Fig. 77. 




Describe a circle, three-quarters of an inch larger in "Siameter 
than a circle that will cut each corner of the article the top or 
cover is for ; set off the squares from B to C ; take one half of the 
largest square ; and with B and C as centres, describe arcs G 
and H ; then with A as centre, describe the arc cutting the square 
at I and the arc D ; where the arcs GB and HD intersect, draw the 
lines AE and AF, also the lines BE and GF. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



19 



STEAMER COVER. 



To describe .a Steamer Cover. 



Fig. 78. 




Describe a circle one inch larger in diameter than the hoop 
after the edge is laid off; lay the hoop on the plate, allowing an 
(edge each side, as shown by the distance between the two circles 
and the dot on the line AC, the circle DE representing the hoop ; 
take the distance from A to the dot on the line AO, and set off 
three times the distance on the outer circle, as from A to B ; draw 
the lines AC and BC, cutting the centre at C. 

Edges to foe allowed. 



I * 



80 



PRACTICAL RULES 



OVAL. 



To describe an Ellipse or Oval, having the Two 
Diameters given. 

Pig. 79. 




On the intersection of the two diameters as a centre, with a 
radius equal to one-half the difference of the two diameters, de- 
scribe the arc AB, and from B as a centre, with half the chord 
ACB, describe the arc CD ; from E as a centre with the distance 
ED cut the diameters at FF and DD ; draw the lines FO, FO, FO, 
FO ; then from F and F as centres, describe the arcs 00, and 00 ; 
also, from D and D as centres, describe the smaller arcs, 00 and 
00, which will complete the ellipse as required. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



81 



OVAL. 



To draw an Ellipse with the Rule and Compasses, 
the transverse and conjugate Diameters being 
given ; that is> the Length and Width. 

Pig. 80. 




Let AB be the trans vese or longest diameter ; CD the conjugate 
or shortest diameter ; and the point of their intersection, that 
is the centre of the ellipse. Take the distance OC or OD ; and, 
taking A as one point, mark that distance AE upon the line AO ; 
divide OE into three equal parts, and take from AF, a distance 
EF, equal to one of those parts ; make OG equal to OF with the 
radius FG, and F and G as centres ; strike arcs which shall inter- 
sect each other in the points I and H ; then draw the lines HFK, 
HGM, and IFL, IGN ; with F as a centre, and the radius AF, de- 
scribe the arc LAK ; and, from G as a centre, with the same radius, 
describe the arc MBN" ; with the radius HO, and H as a centre, 
describe the arc KCM ; and from the point I, with the radius ID, 
describe the arc LMD. The figure ACBD is an ellipse, formed of 
four arcs of circles. 



82' 



PRACTICAL RULES 



ELLIPSE. 



To find the Centre and the two Arcs of an JSllipse. 




Let ABCD be an ellipse, it is required to find its centre ; draw 
any two lines, as EF and GH, parallel and equal to each other ; 
bisect these lines as in the points I and K, and bisect IK as in L 
from L, as a centre, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in four poins, t 
1,2,3,4, now L is the centre of the ellipse ; but join the points 1, 
3, and 2,4 ; and bisect these lines as in M and N ; draw the line 
MN, and produce it to A and B, and it will be the transverse axis 
draw CD through L, and perpendicular to AB, and it will be the 
conjugate or shorter axis. 



FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



33 



To find the Radius and Versed Sine for a given 
Frustrum of a Cone. 




Multiply the slant height by one-half the diameter of the large 
end, and divide the product by one-half the difference of the two 
ends, and the quotent is the radius ; the versed sine is found by 
multiplying the altitude by one-half the diameter of the large 
end ; and dividing the product by one half the difference of the 
two ends ; then substract the quotent from the radius, and the 
remainder is the versed sine. 

The diameter AB equal 12 inches ; CD equal 8 inches ; the slant 
height DB equal 10 inches, required the radius 10 X 6 = 60 -; 2 
■= 30 inches radius. 

The diameter AB equal 12 inches ; CD equal 8 inches ; the al- 
titude I 0, 9.79 inches required versed sine, 9.79 X 6 = 58.74 -7- 
2 — 29.37; 30 — 29.37 = .63 versed sine. 
8 



Geometry is the science which investigates and demonstrates 
the properties of lines on surfaces and solids ; hence, Practical 
Geometry is the method of applying the rules of science to prac- 
tical purposes. 



From any given point, in a straight line, to erect a 
perpendicular ; or, to make a line at right angles 
with a given line. 

On each side of the point A, from which the line vj^ 

is to be made, take equal distances, as AB, AC ; 
and from B and D as centres, with any distance 
greater than BA, or CA, describe arcs cutting each 
other at D ; then will the line AD be the perpen- "* 
dicular required. 



y^ 



A C 1 ^ 



When a perpendicular is to be made at or near the 
end of a given line. 

With any convenient radius, and with any 
distance from the given line AB, describe a 
portion of a circle, as BAC, cutting the giv- 
en point in A ; draw, through the centre of 
the circle N, the line BNO ; and a line from 
the point A, cutting the intersection at C, is 
the perpendicular required. 

[84] 




PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



85 



To do the same otherwise 

From the given point A, with any con- 
venient radius, describe the arc DCB ; from 
D, cut the arc in C, and from C, cut the arc 
in B ; also, from C and B as centres, describe 
arcs cutting each other in T ; then will the 
line AT be the perpendicular as required. 



*J 



Note.— When the three sides of a triangle are in the proportion of 3, 4, and 5 
equal parts, respectively, two of the sides form a right angle ; and observe that 
in each of these or the preceding problems, the perpendiculars may be continued 
below the given lines, if necessarily required. 



To bisect any given Angle. 

From the point A as a centre, with any ra- 
dius less than the extent of the angle, describe \ */* \ / 
an arc as CD ; and from C and D as centres, de- \ / 

scribe arcs cutting each other at B ; then will v— ~^j 
the line AB bisect the angle as required. f\^/v 






To find the centre of a Circle or Radius, that shall 
cut any three given points, not in a direct line. 



From the middle point B as a centre, with 
any radiuSj as BC, BD, describe a portion of 
a circle, as CSD ; and from R and T as cen- 
tres, with an equal radius, cut the portion of 
the circle in CS and DS ; draw lines through 
where the arcs cut each other ; and the inter- 
section of the lines at S is the centre of the 
circle as required. 




To find the length of any given arc of a Circle. 

With the radius AC, equal to J-th the 
length of the chord of the arc AB, and 
from A as a centre, cut the arc in C ; 

also from B as a centre, with equal ra- a ~^ gf 

dius, cut the chord in B ; draw the line CB ; and twice the length 
of the line is the length of the arc nearly. 



86 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Through any given pointy to draw a tangent to a 
circle. 



Let the given point be at A ; draw the 
line AC, on which describe the semicircle 
ADC ; draw the line ADB, cutting the cir- 
cumference in D, which is the tangent as 
required. 




To draw from or to the circumference of a circle 
lines tending towards the centre, when the centre is 
inaccessible. 

Divide the whole or any given 
portion of the circumference into t 
the desired number of equal & "j- 
parts ; then, with any radius less ^ 
than the distance of two divisions, ' 
describe arcs cutting each other, 

as Al Bl, C2, D2, &c. ; draw the lines CI, B2, D3, &c, 
lead to the centre as required. 




F 
which 



To draw the end lines. 

As AR, FR, from C describe the arc R, and with the radius CI, 
from A or F as centres, cut the former arcs at R, or R, and the 
lines AR, FR, will tend to the centre as required 



To describe an arc, or segment of a circle of large 
radii. 

Of any suitable material, construct a triangle, as ABC ; make 
AB,BC, each equal in length to the chord of the arc DE, and 




height, twice that of the arc BB. At each end of the chord DE 
fix a pin, and at B, in the triangle, fix a tracer, (as a pencil,) 
move tne triangle along the pins as guides ; and the traces will 
describe the arc required. 



TIIACTICAL GEOMETRY.) 



87 




Or otherwise. 

Draw the chord ACB ; also, 
draw the line HDI, parallel 
with the chord, and equal to 
the height of the segment ; bi- 
sect the chord in C, and erect Sf~i — £ 3 lc~» T~~f 5 
the perpendicular CD ; join AD, DB ; draw AH perpendicular to 
AD, and BI perpendicular to BD, erect also the perpendiculars 
A 7i, B n ; divide AB and HI into any number of equal parts ; 
draw the lines 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, &c. ; likewise divide the lines A n y 
B n> each into half the number of equal parts ; draw lines to D 
from each division in the lines A w, B w, and through where they 
intersect the former lines, describe a curve, which will be the arc 
or segment required. 



To describe an Elliptic arch, the Width and Hise 
of Span been given. 

Bisect with a line at right angles 
the chord or span A B ; erect the per- 
pendicular A q, and draw the line q D a 
equal and parallel to AC ; bisect AC 
and A q in r and n ; make C I equal to 
CD, and draw the line I r q ; draw also 
the line n s D ; bisect s D with a line 
at right angles, and meeting the line 
CD in g ; draw the line g q, make CP 
equal to C &, and draw the line g P i ; 
then from g as a centre, with the radius 3 

g D, describe the arc sJ)i; and from k and P as centres, with 
the radius A &, describe the arcs A s and B i, which completes the 
arch as required. Or, 



wTlv 









: R 


^ 








A K\ 






G 


/? B 



Bisect the chord AB, and fix at 
right angles any straight guide, as b c; 
prepare, of any suitable material, a 
rod or staff, equal to half the chord's 
length, as d ef; from the end of the 
staff, equal to the height of the arch, 
fix a pin e, and at the extremity a 
tracer/; move the staff, keeping its 
end to the guide and the fixed pin to 
the chord ; and the tracer will describe one-half the arc required. 




88 



PEACT1CAL GEOMETKY. 



To describe a Parabola^ the dimensions been given. 

Let AB equal the length, and CD the breadth of the required 
parabola ; divide CA, CB into any number of equal parts ; also, 




divide the perpendiculars A a and B b into the same number of 
equal parts; then from a and b draw lines meeting each division 
on the line ACB , and a curve line drawn through each intersec- 
tion will-form the parabola required. 

To obtain by measurement the length of any direct 
line^ though intercepted by some material object. 

Suppose the distance between A and B is required, but the 
right line is intercepted by the object C. On the point d } with 




any convenient radius, describe the arc c c, make the arc twice 
the radius in length, through which draw the line dee, and on e 
describe another arc equal in length to once the radius, as eff; 
draw the line efr equal to efd; on r describe the arc j j, in 
length twice the radius; continue the line through rj, which 
will be a right line, and d e, or e r, equal the distance between dr, 
by which the distance between A and B is obtained as required. 

To inscribe any Regular Polygon in a given circle. 

Divide any diameter, as AB, into so many 
equal parts as the polygon is required to have 
sides ; from A and B as centres, with a radius 
equal to the diameter, describe arcs cutting 
each other in C ; draw the line CD through 
the second point of division on the diameter 
e, and the line DB is one side of the polygon 
required. 




PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



89 



To construct a Square upon a given right line. 

From A and B as centres, with the radius 
AB, describe the arcs Acb y TScd, and from c, 
with an equal radius, describe the circle or 
portion of a circle cd, AB, be ; from bd cut 
the circle at e and c ; draw the lines Ae,Bc, 
also the line st y which completes the square 
as required. 




To form a Square equal in area to a given triangle. 



Let ABC be the given triangle ; let 
fall the perpendicular Be?, and make Ae 
half the height dB ; bisect eC, and de- 
scribe the semicircle enC ; erect the 
perpendicular As, or side of the square, 



then A s t x is the square of equal a'rea as required. 




To form a Square equal in area to a given rectangle. 

Let the line AB equal the length and 
breadth of the given reetangle ; bisect 
the line in e, and describe the semicircle 
ADB ; then from A with the breadth, or 
from B with the length, of the rectangle, 
cut the line AB at C, and erect the per- 
pendicular CD, meeting the curve at D, and CD equal a side of 
the square required. • 




To find the Length for a rectangle whose area shall 
be equal to that of a given Square, the Breadth of 
the rectangle being also given. 

Let ABCD be the given e p _* 

square, and DE the given r ~ 

breadth of rectangle ; continue L^* - "' - ' 

the line BC to F, and draw the D f 
line D*F ; also, continue the line 

DC to g, and draw the line A# I 

parallel to DF ; from the inter- I 

section of the lines at <jr, draw L- ^ " " 1 

the line gd parallel to DE, and A, B 

Erf parallel to Dg ; then ED% is the rectangle as required. 



90 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



To bisect any given Triangle* 

Supose ABO the given triangle ; bisect one 
of its sides, as AB in e, from which describe 
the semicircle ArB ; bisect the same in r, and 
from B, with the distance Br, cut the diameter 
AB in v; draw the line vy parallel to AC, 
which will bisect the triangle as required. 




To describe a Circle of greatest diameter in a given 
triangle. 

Bisect the angles A and B, and 
draw the intersecting lines AD, BD, 
cutting each other in D ; then from D 
as centre, with the distance or radii 
DO, describe the circle Cef, as re- 
quired. 




To form a Rectangle of greatest surface in a given 
triangle. 

Let ABC be the given triangle; bisect any „ 

two of its sides, as AB, BO, in e and d ; draw 
the line ed ; also at right angles with the line 
ed, draw the lines ep,dp, and ejppd is the rectan- 
gle required. 




DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS TO FRACTIONAL 
PARTS OF LINEAL MEASUREMENT. 



One Inch the Integer or Whole Number. 



96875 are equal to 


$ & 32 


.46875 


a 


t*» 


9375 " 


*&i 


.4375 


u 


t & 1« 


90625 " 


i*<» 


.40625 


CI 


#&32 


875 


1 


.375 


H 


1 


84375 " 


* &3* 


.34375 


a 


i &3 3 2 


8125 " 


*&!• 


.3125 


u 


i&l. 


78125 " 


t & 32 


.28125 


u 


J & 3*8 


75 


* 


.25 


u 


i 


71875 


f & 32 


.21875 


u 


"J" & 32 


6875 " 


f & 16 


.1875 


u 


i & i6 


65625 " 


f &32 


.15625 


u 


i & 32 


625 " 


f 


.125 


<i 


i 


59375 " 


i & 32 


.09375 


11 


3 

32 


5625 " 


i & 16 


.0625 


u 


1 

16 


53125 


■J & 82 


.03125 


it 


1 

32 


5 " 


l 









One Foot or 12 Inches the Integer. 



9166 are equal'to 


11 inches. 


.1666 are equal to 


2 inches. 


8833 


10 " 


.0833 


1 " 


75 


9 " 


.07291 " 


i H 


6666 " 


8 " 


.0625 


i " 


5833 " 


7 " 


.05208 " 


* *' 


5 " 


6 u 


.04166 " 


i " 


4166 " 


5 " 


.03125 " 


* " 


3333 " 


4 " 


.02083 " 


i " 


25 " 


S " 


.01041 " 


4 " 



91 



DEFINITIONS OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS 

USED IN THE FOLLOWING 

CALCULATIONS. 



= Sign of Equality, and signifies as 4 -f- 6 = 10. 



+ 



X 



Addition, " 

Substraction, " 

Multiplication, " 

-7- " Division, " 

Y " Square Root, " 

Square Root. 

6* " to be Squared, " 

f» " to be Cubed, M 
Powers. 



as 6 + 6 = 12, the Sum. 
as 6 — 2 ==4, " Remainder, 
as 8 X 3 = 24, " Product. 

as 24 -^ 3 = 8 or * =8. 
Evolution or Extraction of 

thus 8* = 64 Involution, or 
thus 3<* = 27 the Raising of 



[92] 



w. 



kmmutm d 3mfmt®. 



Mensuration is that branch of Mathematics which is employed 
in ascertaining the extension, solidities and capacities of bodies 
capable of being measured. 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 



To Measure or Ascertain the quantity of Surface in 
any Right lined figure^ whose Sides are Parallel to 
each other , as figs. 1,2 and 3. 



Square. 
1. 



Rectangle. 
2. 



Rhomboid. 
3. 



Rule. — Multiply the length by the breadth or perpendicular 
height and the product will be the area or superficial contents. 

Application of the Rule to Practical purposes. 
The sides of a square piece of iron is 9-£ inches in length re- 
quired the area. 

Decimal equivalent to the fraction -J — .875. (See page 91), and 
9.875 x 9.875 = 97.5, &c, square inches the area. 

[93] 



94 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 



2. The length of a Roof is 60 ft. 4 in., and its width 25 ft. 3 in. 
required the area of the Roof. 

4 iuGhes = 333 and 3 inches = .25, (See table of equivalents,) 
hence, 60.333 X 25.25 = 1523.4 ^quare feet the area. 



TRIANGLES. 

To find the Area of a Triangle when the base and 
perpendicular are given, fig. 3. 



Rule. — Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and 
half the product is the area. 

The base of the triangle, fig. 4, ADB 
is 3 feet 6 inches in length, and the 
height, DC, 1 foot 9 inches required 
the area. 

6 inches = .5, and 9 inches = 75 ; 

hence =3.0625 Square feet the area. 




Any two sides of a Bight Angled Triangle being 
given to find the third. 

Fig. 5. 

When the base and perpendiculars are 
given to find the hypothenuse. 

Add the square of the base to the square 
of the perpendicular, and the square root of 
the sum will be the hypothenuse. 

The base of the triangle, fig. 5, AB is 4 . 
feet, and the perpendicular BC 3 feet, then ^ — 
4* -f 38 = 25, Y 25 = 5 feet the hypothenuse. 

When the Hypothenuse and Base are given, to find 
the Perpendicular. 

From the Square of the hypothenuse, subtract the Square of 
the base, and the Square of the remainder will be the perpen- 
dicular. 




MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 95 

The hypothenuse of the triargle, fig. 5, AC, is 5 feet, and the 
base, AB, 4 feet; then 5^ — 12 = 9, and V9 — 3 the perpen- 
dicular. 

JVJien the Hypothenuse and the Perpendicular are 
given to find the base. 

From the Square of the hypothenuse subtract the square of the 
perpendicular and the square root of the remainder will be the 
base. 



96 



MENSURATION" OF SURFACES. 



OF POLYGONS. 



To find the Area of a Regular Polygon. 



Rule. — Multiply the length of a side by half 
the distance from the side to the centre, and 
that product by the number of sides ; the last 
product will be the area of the figure. 

Example. — The side AB of a regular hexagon 
is 12 inches, and the distance therefrom to the 
centre of the figure, dc, is 10 inches ; required 
the area of the hexagon. 
10 

— x 12 X 6 — 360 sq. in. ■= 2| sq. feet. 
2 



Pig 




Arts. 



To find the Area of a Regular Polygon^ when the 
Side only is given. 

Rule.— -Multiply the square of the side by the multiplier op- 
posit to the name of the Polygon in the 9th column of the follow- 
ing Table, and the product will be the area. 

Table of angles relative to the construction of Regular Polygons with 
the aid of the Sector, and of co-efficients to facilitate their construe- 
tion without it ; also, of co- efficients to aid in finding the area of 
the figure , the side only being given. 



Names. 


No. Angle 

of i at 

sides centre. 


Angle 

at 

circum. 


Perpn'n. 

side 
being 1. 


Leugth of 
side rad's 
being 1. 


Radius of 
circl',side 
being 1. 


Rad.' of 
cir.perp 
being 1. 


Area 

side 

being 1. 


Triangle, 
Square, 
Pentagon, 
Hexagon, 


3 
4 
5 
6' 


120° 
90 
72 
60 


60° 
90 
108 
120 


0.28868 
0.5 

0.6882 
0.866 


1.782 
1.414 
1.175 
1. 


.5773 
.7071 
.8506 
1. 


2. 

1.414 
3.238 
1.156 


0.438012 
1. 

1.720477 
2.598076 


Heptagon, 


7 


54 


128i 


1.0S82 


.8672 


1.152 


1.11 


3.633912 


Octagon, 
Nonagon, 
Decagon, 


8 

9 

10 


45 
40 
36 


135 
140 
144 


1.2071 
1.3737 
1.5388 


.7654 

.684 

.618 


1.3065 
1.4619 
1.618 


1.08 
1.06 
1.05 


4.828427 
6.181824 
7.694208 


Undecagon, 


11 


32 i7 


147- 


1.7028 


.5684 


1.7747 


1.04 


9.36564 


Dodecagon, 


12 


30 


150 


1.866 


.6176 


1.9318 


1.037 


11.196152 



Notb — M Angle at centre" means the angle of radii, passing from the centre to 
the circumference, or corners of the figure. " Angle at circumference" means 
the angle which any two adjoining sides make with each other. 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 97 



THE CIRCLE AND ITS SECTIONS. 



Observations and Definitions. 

1. The Circle contains a greater area than any other plain 
figure bounded by the same perimeter or outline. 

2. The areas of Circles are to each other as the squares of their 
diameters ; any Circle twice the diameter of another contains four 
times the area of the other. 

Fig. 7. 
8. The radius of a circle is a Straight line 
drawn from the centre to the circumference, as 
BD, fig. ». 

4. The diameter of a circle is a Straight line 
drawn through the centre and terminated both 
ways at the circumference, as ABC. 

5. A chord is a Straight line joining any two points of the cir- 
cumference, as EF. 

6. The Versed sine is a Straight line joining the chord, and the 
circumference as GH. 

7. An arc is any part of the circumference, as AEH. 

8. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a diameter, 
as AHC. 

9. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a chord, as 
EHF. 

* 10. A Sector is a part of a circle cut off by two radii, as CBD. 




General Rules in Relation to the Circle. 

1. Multiply the diameter by 3.1416 the product is the Circum- 
ference. 

2. Multiply the circumference by 31831, the product is the di- 
ameter. 

3. Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the pro- 
duct is the area. 



98 MJSNSUBATIOJff OF SUUPACES. 

4. Multiply the square root of the area by 1.12837, the product 
is the diameter. 

5. Multiply the diameter by .8862, the product is.the side of a 
Square of equal area. 

6. Multiply the side of a square by 1.128, the product is the 
diameter of a circle of equal area. 



Application of the Rules to Practical Purposes. 

1. The diameter of a circle being 5 ft. 6 inches, required it cir- 
cumference. 

5.5 X 3 1416 = 17.27880 feet tha circumference. 

2. A straight line, or the circumference of a circle being 
17.27880 feet required the circle's diameter corresponding thereto. 

17.27880 ~h .31831 == 5.5000148280 feet diameter- 

3. The diameter of a circle is 9f inches ; what is its area in 
square inches ? 

9.375 2 = 87.89, &c. X •?854 — 69.029,* &c, inches the area. 

4. What must the diameter of a circle be to contain an area 
equal to 69.029296875 square inches. 

Y 69.02929, &c, = 8.3091 X 1.12837 = 9.375, &c, 
or 9f inches the diameter. 

5. The diameter of a circle is 15£ inches - f what must each side 
of a square be, to be equal in area to the given circle ? 

15.5 X .8862 = 13.73, &c, inches length of side. 

6. Each side of a square is 13.736 inches in length, what must 
the diameter of a circle be to contain an area equal to the given 
square. 

13.736 X 1.128 = 15.49 &c, or 15£ inches the diameter. 
Any chord and versed sine of a circle being given to find the 
diameter. 

Rule. — Divide the sum of the squares of the chord and versed 
sine by the versed sine, the quotent is the diameter of corres- 
ponding circle. 

Fig. 8. 

7. The chord of a circle AC, fig. 8, equal 8 
feet, and the versed sine, BD equal 1£ feet, re- 
quired the circles diameter. 

83 _|_ 1.5* = 66.25 ~ 1.5 =44.16 feet the 
diameter. A* 




MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 



99 



8. In the curve of a railway, I stretched a line 80 feet in length, 
and the distance from the line to the curve I found to be 9 inches, 
required the circles diameter. 

80a. -f .75-* = 640 5625 -r2 = 820.28, &c, feet the diameter. 

To find the Length of any arc of a circle. 

Rule. — From eight times the chord of half the arc, subtract 
the chord of the whole arc, and one-third of the remainder will 
be the length nearly. 

Fig; 9. 

Required the length of the arc 
ABO, fig 9. the chord AB of half 
the arc being 8£ ft... and chord AC A 
of the whole arc 16 tt. 8 inches. 




41.334 



8.5X8= 68.0 and 68 — 16.666 = 



13.778 c. feet 




the length of the arc. 

To find the area of the sector of a circle. 

Fig. 10. 

Rule. — Multiply the length of the arc by half 
the length of the radius. 

The length of the arc ABC, fig. 10, equals 9-J- 
inches, and the radii DA, DC equal each 7 inches 
required the area 

9.5 X 3.5 = 33.25 inches the area. 

To find the area of a Segment of a circle. 

Rule. — Find the area of a sector whose arc is equal to that of 
the given segment, and if it be less then a semicircle subtract the 
area of the triangle formed by the chord of the segment and radii 
of its extremities ; but if more than a semicircle add the area of 
the triangle to the area of the sector and the remainder or sum is 
the area of the segment. 

Thus suppose the area of the segment ABC. E fig 10. is requir- 
ed and that the length of the arc ABC equals V.*± ft., DA and DC 
each equal 14 ft., and the chord AC equal 16 ft., 8 inches; also the 
perpendicular ED equal 7-J- feet. 

16.666X7.5 

19.5 X 7 = 136.5 feet the area of the sector, *= 



62.49 feet the area of the triangl 
area of the segment. 
5 



136.5 — 62.49 — 74 01 feet the 




100 MENSURATION OP SURFACES. 



To find the area of the space contained between two 
Concentric Circles or the area of a Circular Ring. 

Rule. — 1 Multiply the sum of the inside and out side diameters 
by their difference and by .7854 the product is the area. 

Pig. 11. 

Rule 2. — The difference of the areas of 
the two circles will be the area of the Ring 
on space. 

Suppose the external circle AD, fig. 11, 
equal 4 ft., and the internal circle BC 2£ 
ft. , required the area, of the space contained 
between them or area of a Ring. 

4 -f- 2.5 — 6.5 and 4 — 2.5 == 1.5 hence, 6.5 X &* X .7854 — 
7.65 ft., the area ; or, 

The area of 4 ft., is 12.566 ; the area of 2.5 is 4.9081. (See table 
of areas of circles.) 

12.566 — >. 4.9081 «*» 7.6579 the area. 



To find the area of Ellipse or Oval. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter together and their product by 
.7854. 

An oval is 20 inches by 15 inches what are its superficial contents 
20 X 15 X .7854 == 235.62 inches the area. 

To find the circumference of an Ellipse or Oval. 

Rule. — Multiply half the sura of the two diameters by 3.1416, 
the product will be the circumference. 

Example. — An oval is 20 inches by 15 inches what is its cir- 
cumference. 
20 + 15 
=*=17.5 X 3.1416 mm 54.978 inches the circumference. 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 101 



OF CYLINDERS. 



To find the Convex Surface of a Cylinder* 

Rcle. — Multiply the circumference by the height or length the 

•product will be [he surface. 

Example. — The circumference of a cylinders is 6 ft., 4 inches 
and us length 15 ft., required the convex surface, 

6.383 X 15 = 94.995 square feet the surface. 



OF CONES OR PYRAMIDS 

To find the Convex Surface of a Right Cone or 
Pyramid 

Rule. — Multiply the perimeter circumference of the base by the 
slant height, and half the product is the slant surface if the sur- 
face of the entire figure is required, and the area of the base to the 
convex surface. 

Example. — The base of a Cone, fig. 13, is 5 ft., diameter and 
the slant height is 7 feet, what is the convex surface ? 

15.70X7 

5 X 3.1416 =15.70 circumference of the base and =54.95 

2 
square feet the convex surface. 

To find the Convex Surface of a Frustrum of a 
Cone or Pyramid. 

Rule. — Multiply the sum of the circumference of the two ends 
by the slant height, and half the product will be the slant surface. 

The diameter of the top of a Frustom of a Cone, fig. 14, is 3 ft., 
the base 5 ft., the slant height 7 ft. 3 inches, required the slant 
surface. 

25.12X7.25 
9.42 + 15.7 =■ = 91.06 square ft., the slant surface. 



102 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 



OF SPHERES. 



To find the Convex Surface of a Sphere or Globe, 

fig- 12. 

Fig. 12. 

Rule. -^Multiply the diameter of the Sphere 
by its circumference, and the product is its sur- 
face ; or, 

Multiply the square of the diameter by 3.14- 
16, the product is its surface. 

What is the Convex Surface of a globe, 6J- 
ft., in diameter? 

6.5 X 3.1416 X 6.5 = 132.73 square feet; or, 6.52 _ 4005 X 
3.1416 =- 132.73 square feet the Convex surface. 




MENSURATION OF SOLIDS AND CAPACI- 
TIES OF BODIES. 



To find the Solidity or capacity of any figure in the 
Cubical Form. L 

Rule. — Multiply the length of any one side by its breadth and 
by the depth or distance to its opposite side, the product is the 
solidity or capacity in equal terms of measurement. 

Example. — The side of a cube i3 20 inches, what is the solidity ? 
20 X 20 X 20 = 8000 cubic inches ; or, 4.6296 cubic feet nearly. 

A Rectangular tank is in length 6 feet, in breadth 4^- feet, and in 
depth 3 feet, required its capacity in cubic feet; also its capacity 
in U. S. Standard gallons. 



6x4.5X3^=81 cubic feet, 81X1728 = 
gallons. 



'139968 -r- 231 =-605.92 



MENSURATION OF SOLIDS. 103 



OF CYLINDERS. 



To find the Solidity of Cylinders. 

Rule. — Multiply the area of the base by the height, and the 
product is the solidity. 

Example. — The base of a cylinder is 18 inches, and the height 
is 40 inches — what is the solidity ? 

182 x ^854 x 40 = 10178.7840 cubic inches. 



To find the Contents in Gallons of Cylindrical 

Vessels. 

Rule. — Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the height, then mul- 
tiply the product by .0034 for Wine gallons, or by .002785 for 
Beer gallons. 

Example. — How many II. S. Gallons will a Cylinder contain, 
whose diameter is 18 inches and length 3u Inches. 

18^ X 30 = 9720 X .0034 = 33.04, &c, gallons. 



OF CONES AND PYRAMIDS. 

To find the Solidity of a Cone or a Pyramid. 

Fig. 13. 

p 

Rule. — Multiply the area of the Base by the 

perpendicular height, and \ the product will be 
the Solidity. 

Example. — The base of a cone, fig. 13, is 2 £ ft., 
and the height is 3 f feet, what is the Solidity. 

2.25 X .7851 X 3.75 

— r= 407 cubic feet the Solidity, 




104 MENSURATION OF SOLIDS. 



To -find the Solidity of the Frustrum of a Cone. 

Rule. — To the Product of the diameters ef the ends, add i the 
square of the difference of the diameters ; multiply the sum by 
.7854 and the product will be the mean area between the ends, 
which multiplied h^ the perpendicular's height of the Frustrom, 
gives the Solidity. 



Fig 




Example. — The diameter of the large end of a 
Frustrom of a Cone, fig. 14, is 10 feet, that of 
the smaller end is G feet, and the perpendicular 
height 12 feet, what is the Solidity V 

10 — 6 = 4» = 16 -=- 3 = 5.333 sq. of differ- 
ence of ends ; and 10 X 6 + 5 333 = 65.333 X 
.?854 X 12 = 615.75 cubic feet the Solidity. 



To find the Contents in U. S. Standard Gallons of 
the Frustrum of a Cone. 

Rule. — To the product of the diameters in inches, and decimal 
parts of an inch of the ends, add -^ the square of the difference 
of the diameters Multiply the sum by the perpendicular height 
in inches and decimal parts of an inch, and multiply that product 
by .0034 for Wine gallons, and by .002785 for Beer gallons. 

Example. — The diameter of the large end of a Frustrum of a 
Cone, fig. 14, is 8 feet, that of the smaller end is 4 feet, and the 
perpendicular height 10 feet — what is the Contents in U. S. Stan- 
dard gallons ? 

06 — 48 = 48^ = 2304 •-*- 3 — 768 ; 96 X 48 + 768 — 5376 
X 120 X .0034 =2193.4 gallons. 




MENSURATION OF SOLIDS. 105 

To find the Solidity of the Frustrum of a Pyramid. 

Fig. 15. 

Rule. — Add to the areas of*the two ends of the 
Frustrum, the square root of their product, and 
this sum multiplied by i of the perpendicular 
height will give the Solidity. 

* 

Example. — What is the Solidity of a hexagonal 
pyramid, fig. 15, a side of the large end AB, being }£- 
12 feet, and one of the smaller ends 6 feet, and the perpendicular 
height 8 feet ? 

374.122 + 93.53 ■« 1^34991.63 — 590.811 374.122 + 93.53-^ 
1058. .463 X 8 
690.811 — = 2822.568 Cubic ft. the Solidity. 



To find the Solidity of a Sphere, 

Rule. — Multiply the Cube of the diameter by .5236 and the pro- 
duct is the Solidity. 

Example. — What is the Solidity of a Sphere, fig. 15, the diame- 
ter being 20 inches ? 

20* — 8000 X .5236 =4188.8 Cubic inches the Solidity. 



Weight of Square Boiled Iron, from 1-4 Inch to 12 
Inches, and 1 Foot in Length. 



Size in 


Weight in 


Size in 


Weight in 


I Size in 


Weight in 


Inches. 


Pounds- 


Inches. 


Pounds- 


1 Inches. 


Pounds. 


i 


0.2 


n 


35.7 


64 


142.8 


t 


0.5 


H 


38.5 


64 


154.0 


4 


0.8 


n 


41.4 


7 


165.6 


f 


1.8 


H 


44.4 


74 


177.7 


4 


1.9 


3| 


47.5 


n 


190.1 


* 


2.6 


31 


50.8 


74 


203.0 




3.4 


4 


54.1 


8 


216.3 


n 


43 


H 


57.5 


84 


230.1 


i± 


5.3 


44 


61.1 


84 


244.2 


ii 


6.4 


4| 


64.7 


84 


258.8 


i* 


7.6 


H 


68.4 


9 


273.8 


ii 


8.9 


H 


72.3 


94 


289.2 


if 


10.4 


44 


76.3 


n 


305.1 


14 


11.9 


44 


80.3 


94 


321.3 


2 


13.5 


5 


84.5 


10 


337.9 


n 


15.3 


H 


88.8 


104 


355.1 


H 


17.1 


H 


93.2 


104 


372.7 


2| 


19.1 


H 


97.7 


104 


390.6 


H 


21.1 


H 


102.2 


n 


409.0 


H 


23.3 


n 


107.0 


114 


427.8 


2f 


25.6 


54 


111.8 


Hi 


447.0 


2| 


27.9 


64 


116.7 


114 


466.7 


3 


30.4 


6 


121.7 


12 


486.7 


3* 


33.0 


6i 


132.0 







106 



TABLES OF WEIGHT, ETC. 



107 



Weight of Flat Boiled Iron from 1-8x1-2 Inch to 
1X6 Inches. 



Thick.. 


Width. 


W.igbtto 
Founds. 


"T"" 


i 


0.211 


i 


♦ 


0.264 


i 


t 


0.316 


i 


I 


0.369 


i 




0.422 


£ 


tt 


0.475 


} 




0.8 


| 


li 


1.1 


i 


H 


1.3 


i 


if 


1.5 


i 


2 


1.7 


i 


2i 


1.9 


i 


a* 


2.1 


i 


2* 


2.3 


i 


3 


2.5 


I 


Si 


2.7 


i 


8* 


8.0 


i 


34 


3.2 


i 


4 


3.4 


i 


4i 


3.6 


i 


4* 


3.8 


i 


4i 


4.0 


i 


5 


4.2 


I 


5i 


4.4 


i 


5i 


4.6 


i 


51 


4.9 


i 


6 


5.1 


t 


1 


1.3 


i 


U 


1.6 


1 


U 


1.9 


i 


1* ' 


2.2 


i 


2 


2.5 


t 


2i 


2.9 


* 


2* 


3.2 


I 


21 


3.5 


I 


3 


3.8 


t 


8i 


4.1 


i 


Si 


4.4 


* 


33 


4^8 
10 



4 

44 
4* 
4| 
5 

H 

5l 

51 

6 

1 

14 

li 

ll 

2 

24 

2i 

21 

3 

34 

8i 

31 

4 

41 

4§ 

41 

5 

54 

51 

51 

6 

1 

U 

u 
14 

2 

24 

21 

21 

3 



5.1 
5.4 
5.7 
6.0 
6.3 
6.7 
7.0 
7.3 
7.6 
1.7 
2.1 
2.5 
8.0 
3.4 
3.8 
4.2 
4.6 
5.1 
5.5 
5.9 
6.3 
6.8 
7.2 
7.6 
8.0 
8.4 
8.9 
9.3 
9.7 
10 1 
2.1 
2.6 
8.2 
3.7 
4.2 
4.8 
5.3 
S.8 
6.3 



Thick: ! Width: 

!_ 



8i 

31 

31 

4 

44 

41 

41 

5 

54 

51 

55 

6 

1 

14 

11 

1? 

2 

24 

21 

24 

3 

Si 

8l 

81 

4 

44 

41 

4i 

5 

54 

51 

t 

U 
2 
3 
4 

6 



Weight In 
Pounds: 

6.9 

7.4 

* 7.9 

8.4 

9.0 

9.5 

10.0 

10.6 

11.1 

11.6 

12,1 

12.7 

2.5 

3.2 

3.8 

' 4.4 

5.1 

5.7 

6.3 

7.0 

7.6 

8.2 

8.9 

9.5 

10.1 

10.8 

11.4 

12.0 

12.7 

13.3 

13.9 

14.6 

15.2 

5.1 

6.8 

10.1 

13.5 

16.9 

20.8 



108 



TABLES OF WEIGHT, ETC 



Weight of Hound Boiled Iron from 1-4 Inch to 12 
Inches in Diameter, and 1 foot in Length. 



Diameter in Inches. 



1-1 

3-8 
1-2 
5-8 
3-4 
f-8 
1 

1 1-8 
1 1-4 
1 3-8 
1 1-2 
1 5 8 
1 3-4 

1 7-8 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

2 5-8 
2 3-4 

2 7-8 
3 

3 1-8 
3 1-4 
3 3-8 
8 1-2 
3 5-8 
3 3-4 

3 7-8 
4 

4 1-8 
4 1-4 
4 8-8 
4 1-2 
4 5-8 



1-8 
1-4 
3-8 
1-2 



Weight in Pounds. 



0.2 
0.4 

0.7 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.7 

3.4 

4.2 

5.0 

6.0 

7.0 

8.1 

9.3 

10.6 

12.0 

13.5 

15.0 

16.7 

18.8 

20.1 

21.9 

23.9 

25.9 

28.0 

80.2 

32.5 

34.9 

37.3 

39.9 

42.5 

45.2 

48.0 

50.8 

53.8 

56.8 



Diameter in Inches. 


"Weight in Pounds. 


4 3-4 


60.0 


4 7-8 


63.1 


5 


66.8 


5 1-8 


69.7 


5 1-4 


73.2 


5 3-8 


76.7 


5 1-2 


80.3 


5 5-8 


84.0 


5 34 


87.8 


5 7-8 


91.6 


6 


95.6 


6 1-4 


103.7 


6 1-2 


112.2 


6 3-4 


flh.o 


7 


130.0 


7 1-4 


139.5 


7 1-2 


149.3 


7 3-4 


159.5 


8 


1G9.9 


8 1-4 


180.7 


8 1-2 


191.8 


8 3-4 


203.3 


9 


215.0 


9 1-4 


227.2 


9 1-2 


239.6 


9 3 4 


252.4 


10 


266.3 


10 1-4 


. 278.9 


10 1-2 


292.7 


10 3-4 


306.8 


11 


321.2 


11 1-4 


336.0 


11 1-2 


351.1 


11 3-4 


366.5 


12 


382.2 



TARLES OF WEIGHT, ETC. 



109 



Weight of a Square Foot of Wrought Iron, Cop- 
per and Lead , from 1-16 to 2 Inches thick. 





Wrought Iron, 


Copper, 
Hard Rol'd. 


Lead. 




Hard Rol'd. 




1-16 


2.517 


2.890 


3.691 


1-8 


5.035 


5.741 


7 382 


3-16 


7.552 


8.672 


11.074 


1- 4 


10.070 


11.562 


14.765 


5-16 


12.588 


14.453 


18.456 


3-8 


15.106 


17.344 


22,148 


7-16 


17.623 


20.234 


25.839 


1-2 


20.141 


23.125 


29.530 


9-16 


22.659 


26.106 


33.222 


5-8 


25.176 


28.906 


36.913 


11-16 


27.694 


31.797 


40.604 


%4 


30.211 


34.688 


44.296 


13-16 


32.729 


37.578 


47.987 


7-8 


35.247 


40.469 


51.678 


15-16 


37.764 


43.359 


55.370 




40.282 


46.250 


69.061 


H 


45.317 


62.031 


66.444 


H 


50.352 


57.813 


73.826 


If 


55.387 


63.594 


81.210 


n 


60.422 


69.375 


88.592 


i* 


65.458 


75.156 


95.975 


H 


70.493 


80.938 


103.358 


ii 


75.628 


86.719 


110.740 


2 


80.563 


92.500 1 


118.128 



no 



TABLES OF WEIGHT, ETC. 



Weight of Copper Bolts from 1-4 to 4 Inches in Di- 
qmeter^ and 1 foot in Length. 



Diameter.. 


Pounds. 


Diameter. 


Pounds. 


1-4 


.1892 


1 9-16 


7.3898 


5-18 


.2956 


1 5-8 


7-9931 


3-8 


.4256 


1 3-4 


9.2702 


7-16 


.5794 


1 7-8 


10.6420 


1-2 


.7567 


o 


12.1082 


9-16 


.9578 


2 1-8 


13 6677 


5-8 


1.1824 


2 1-4 


15.3251 


11-16 


1.4307 


2 8-8 


17.0750 


3-4 


1.7027 


2 1-2 


18.9161 


13-13 


1.9982 


2 5-8 


20.8562 


7-8 


2.8176 I 


2 3-4 


22.*13 


15-18 


2 6605 1 


2 7-8 


25.0188 


1 


3.0270 j 


3 


27.2435 


1 1-16 


8.4170 


3 1-8 


29.5594 


1 1-8 


8.8312 


3 1-4 


38.9722 


1 3-16 I 


4.2688 j 


3 3-8 


34.4815 


1 1-4 


4.7298 


3 1-2 


37.0808 N 


1 5-18 


5.2140 


3 5-8 


39.7774 


1 38 j 


5.7228 


3 3-4 


42.5680 


1 7-16 


6.2547 


3 7-8 


45.4550 


1 1-2 


6,3109 


i 4 


48.4330 



TABLES 



OP THE 



TO THE 

Nearest Fraction op Practical Measurement, 
also, 

THE AREAS OP CIRCLES, IN" INCHES, AND DECIMAL PARTS, 
LIKEWISE IN FEET AND DECIMAL PARTS, 
« AS MAY BE REQUIRED. 



Rules that may render the following Tables more 
generally useful. 

1. Any of the areas in inches, multiplied by -04328, or the areas 
in feet multiplied by 6-232, the product is the number of imperial 
gallons at 1 foot in depth. 

2. Any of the areas in feet, multiplied by -03704, the product 
equal the number of cubic yards at 1 foot in depth. 

[in] 



112 



CIRCUMFEKIENCES AND 



Dia. in 


Clrcum. 


Area in 


Side of 


Dia in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


inch. 


in inch. 


sq. inch. 


= sq. 


inch. 


ft. in. 


sq. inch. 


aq. ft. 


1-16 


-196 


-0030 


-0554 


4 in. 


1 0* 


12-566 


-0879 


1-8 


-392 


-0122 


-1107 


44 


1 0£ 


13-364 


-0935 


3-16 


-589 


-0276 


-1661 


H 


1 U 


14-186 


-0993 


1-4 


-785 


-0490 


-2115 


4| 


1 H 


15-033 


-1052 


5-16 


-981 


-0767 


-2669 


41 


1 2\ 


15-904 


-1113 


3-8 


1-178 


-1104 


3223 


4| 


1 21 


16-800 


-117SJ 


7-16 


i-374 


-1503 


-3771 


4* 


i n 


17-720 


-1240 








-4331 


41 
5 in. 


1 3i 


18-665 


-1306 


1-2 


1-570 


-1963 


1 3| 


19-635 


-1374 


9-16 


1-767 


-2485 


-4995 


54 


1 44 


20-629 


-144.4 


5-8 


1-963 


-3J68 


-5438 ! 


H 


1 4J 


21-647 


-1515 


11-16 


2-159 


-3712 


-6093 


54 


1 4J 


22-690 


-1588 


3-4 


2-356 


-4417 


-6646 


5* 


1 54 


23-758 


-1663 


13-16 


2-552 


-5185 


-7200 


54 


1 54 


24-830 


-1739 


7-8 


2-748 


-6)13 


-7754 


5| 


1 6 


25 967 


-1817 


15-16 


2-945 


-69J3 


-8308 

7 

3 


5J 


1 6| 


27-.108 


-1897 


1 in. 


3| 


-7854 


6 in. 


1 6J 


28-274 


-1979 


u 


3J 


-9940 


| & 3-32 


H 


1 74 


29-464 


-2062 


n 


3J 


1-227 


1 in. 


n 


1 74 


30-679 


-2147 


if 


4i 


1-484 


1 3-16 


6iJ 


1 8 


31-919 


-2234 


, n 


4§ 


1-767 


1 5-J6 


6J 


l 84 


33-183 


-2322 


n 


5| 


2 074 


1 7-16! 


6| 


1 81 


34 471 


-2412 


n 


H 


2-405 


1 9-16 


6J 


i n 


35-784 


-2504 


u 


H 


2-761 


1 11-16 


Si 


1 9} 


37-122 


-2598 


2 in. 


U 


3-141 


H 


Tin. 


1 10 


38-484 


-2693 


n 


6J 


3-546 


n 


»* 


l 104 


39-871 


-2791 


n 


7 


3-976 


2 in. 


n 


l 103 


41-282 


-2889 


n 


W 


4-430 


M 


»i 


1 Hi 


42-718 


-2990 


2J 


tj 


4-908 


2 3-16 


»* 


l in 


44-178 


-3092 


2! 


81 


5-412 


2 5-16 


»i 


l 114 


45-663 


-3196 


n 


84 


5-939 


2 7-16 


»* 


2 04 


47-173 


■ 3299 


n 


9 


6-491 


2 9-16 


n 


2 03 


48-707 
50-265 


-3409 


3 in. 


M 


7-068 


2| 


8 in. 


2 14 


-3518 


n 


9| 


7-669 


n 


8J 


2 11 


51-848 


-3629 


« 


10i 


8-295 


2J 


8i 


2 14 


53-456 


-3741 


34 


10| 


8-946 


3 in. 


8| 


2 24 


55-088 


-3856- 


H 


11 


9-621 


34 


8i 


2 24 


66-745 


-3972 


si 


11} 


10-320 


n 


8| 


2 3 


58-426 


-4089 


*i 


111 


il-044 


3} 


8J 


2 34 


60-132 


-4209 


*3 


124 i 


11-793 


3 7-16 


8j 


2 3J 


61-862 


-4330 



AEEAS OF CIRCLES. 



113 



Dia. in 


Cir 


in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia- in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area of 


inch. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


inch. 


ft. in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


9 in. 


2 


41 


63-617 


-4453 


14 in. 


3 71 


153-9381 1-0775 


n 


2 


41 


65-396 


-4577 


141 


3 8f 


156-699 1-0968 


9* 


2 


5 


67-200 


-4704 


iH 


3 81 


159-485 


1-1193 


91 


2 


5| 


69-029 


-4832 


141 


3 91 


162-295 


1-1360 


91 


2 


5* 


70-882 


-4961 


14 2 i 


3 9i 


165-130 


1-1569 


9f 


2 


H 


72-759 


-5093 


14| 


3 91 


167-989 


1 1749 


9| 


2 


6* 


74-662 


-5226 


14| 


3 101 


170-873 


1-1961 


9J 


2 


1 


76-588 


-5361 


141 


3 lOi 


173-782 


1-2164 


10 in. 


2 


n 


78-540 


-5497 


15 in. 


3 HI 


176-715 


1-2370 


m 


2 


n 


80-515 


-5636 


151 


3 11| 


179-672 


1-2577 


m 


2 


si 


82-516 


-5776 


15i 


3 HI 


182-654 


1-2785 


iqi 


2 


sh 


84-540 


-5917 


153 


4 01 


185-661 


1-2996 


m 


2 


81 


86-590 


-6061 


15| 


4 Of 


188-692 


1-3208 


10f 


2 


91 


88-664 


-6206 


15| 


4 1 


191-748 


1-3422 


101 


2 


9* 


90-762 


-6353 


15f 


4 1| 


194-828 


1-3637 


I0| 


2 


10j 


92-855 


-6499 


151 


4 11 


197-933 


1-3855 


11 in 


2 


10* 


95-033 


-6652 


16 in. 


4 21 


201-062 


1-4074 


1« 


2 


10f 


97-205 


-6874 j 


161 


4 2f 


204-216 


1-4295 


U| 


2 


11? 


99-402 


-6958 , 


m 


4 3 


207-394 


1-4517 


HI 


2 


Ill 


101-623 


-7143 


16f 


4 3f 


210-597 


1-4741 


Hi 


3 


01 


103-8S9 


-7290 


16| 


4 3| 


213-825 


1-4967 


HI 


3 


01 


106-139 


-7429 


16j 


4- 41 


217-077 


1-5195 


Hi 


3 


01 


108-434 


-7590 


16| 


4 4| 


220-353 


1-5424 


HJ 


3 


n 


110-753 


-7752 


161 


4 5 


223 654 


1-5655 


12 in. 


3 


1 s 

l 1 


113-097 


-7916 


17 in. 


4 5f 


226-980 


1-5888 


12| 


3 


2 


115-466 


-8082 


in 


4 5J 


230-330 


1-6123 


12* 


3 


21 


117-859 


-8250 


17J 


4 6i 


233-705 


1-6359 


12| 


3 


21 


120-276 


-8419 


ni 


4 6! 


237-104 


1-6597 


12£ 


3 


8i 


122-718 


-8590 


in 


4 61 


240-528 


1-6836 


12| 


3 


31 


125-185 


-8762 


in 


4 7f 


243-977 


1-7078 


12^ 


3 


4 


127-676 


-8937 


in 


# 7| 


247-450 


1-7321 


121 


3 


4f 


130-192 


-9113 


171 


4 81 


250-947 


1-7566 


13 in. 


3 


4f 


132-732 


-9291 


18 in. 


4 8£ 


254-469 


1-7812 


13* 


3 


5i. 


135-297 


-9470 


181 


4 8f 


258-016 


1-8061 


13i 


,3 


5| 


137-886 


-9642 


I8i 


4- 4 91 


261-587 


1-8311 


13| 


3 


6 


140-500 


-9835 


181 


4 9| 


265-182 


1-8562 


13* 


.3 


61 


143-139 


1-0019 


18i 


4 101 


268-803 


1-8816 


13| 


3 


61 


145-802 


1-0206 


18| 


4 10J 


272-447 


1-9071 


13| 


3 


»i 


148-489 


1-0294 


18$ ■■ 


4 101 


276-117 


1-9328 


13} 


3 


7J 


151-201 


1-0584 


181 


4 111 


279-811 


1-9586 



114 



CIRCUMFERENCES AND 



Dia- in 


Ci 


r. in 


Area in 


Area in 


inch. 


ft, 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


19 in. 


4 


HI 


283-529 


1-9847 


19j 


5 





287-272 


1-9941 


m 


5 


OJ 


291-039 


2-0371 


19| 


5 


oj 


294-831 


2-0637 


191 


5 


n 


298-648 


2-0904 


in 


5 


11 


302-489 


2-1172 


191 


6 


2 


306-355 


2 1443 


19| 


5 


2§ 


310-245 


2-1716 


20 in. 


5 


H 


314-160 


2-1990 


20| 


5 


H 


318-099 


2-2265 


20i 


5 


D 8 


322-063 


2-2543 


20} 


5 


4 


326-051 


2-2822 


20£ 


5 


43 

^8 


330-064 


2-3103 


20f 


5 


4i 


334-101 


2-3386 


20f 


5 


5| 


338-163 


2-3670 


20| 


5 


5* 


342-250 


2-3956 


21 in. 


5 


51 


346-361 


2-4244 


21§ 


5 


6£ 


350-497 


2-4533 


21J 


5 


6| 


354-657 


2-4824 


- 21| 


5 


w 


358-841 


2-5117 


21| 


5 


71 
•2 


363-051 


2-5412 


2lf 


5 


*l 


367-284 


2-5708 


21| 


5 


8J 


371-543 


2-6007 


21f 


5 


8J 


375-826 


2-6306 


22 in. 


5 


9i 


380-133 


2-6608 


22J 


5 


9£ 


384-465 


2-6691 


22i 


5 


n 


388-822 


2-7016 


221 


5 


10i 


393-223 


2-7224 


22i 


5 


10s 


397-608 


2-7632 


22| 


5 


11 


402-038 


2-7980 


22^ 


5 


111 


406-493 


2-8054 


221 


5 


111 


410-972 


2-8658 


23 in. 


6 


0$ 


415-476 


2-8903 


23i 


6 


o| 


420-004 


2-9100 


231 


6 


1 


424-557 


2-9518 


23£ 


6 


if 


429-135 


2-9937 


231 


6 


i| 


433-737 


3-0129 


231 


6 


2i 


438-363 


3-0261 


.232 


G 


2| 


443-014 


3-0722 


23J 


G 


3 


447-690! 


0-1081 



Dia, in 
ft. in. 



Cir, in 

ft. in. 



* Area in 
sq. inch. 



6 9| 
6 10J 
6 Hi 



7 *7 
7 8^ 

7 9r 2 



m 

a 

m 

u 

n 

3i 



452-390 
461-864 
471-436 
481-106 
490-875 
500-741 
53 0-706 
520-769 



Area in 
sq. ft. 



530-930 
541-189 
551-547 
562-002 
572-556 
583-208 
593-058 
604-807 




706-860 
718-690 
730-618 
742-644 
754-769 
766-992 
779-313 
791-732 




3-1418. 
3-2075 
3-2731 
3-3410 

3-4081 
3-4775 
3-5468 
3-6101 

3-6870 
3-7583 
3-8302 
3-9042 
3-9761 
4-0500 
4-1241 
4-2000 

4-2760 
4-3521 
4-4302 
4-5083 
4-58(51 

4 06 60 
4-7467 
4-8274 

4-9081 
4-9901 

5 0731 
5-1573 

5-2278 
5-3264 
5-4112 

5-4982 



AREAS OF CIRCLES. 



115 



Dia, in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


Bq. inch. 


aq. ft. 


ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


2 10 


8 102 


907-922 


6-3051 


3 8 


11 


6^ 


1530-53 


10-559 


2 lOJ 


8 111 


921-323 


6-3981 


3 81 


11 


7 


1537-86 10-679 


2 101 


9 0£ 


934-822 


6-4911 


3 81 


11 


72 


1555-28 


10-800 


2 102 


9 11 


948-419 


6-5863 


3 82 


11 


81 


1572-81 


10-922 


2 11 


9 If 


962-115 


6-6815 


3 9 


11 


98 


1590-43 


11-044 


2 111 


9 22 


975-908 


6-7772 


3 92 


11 


iof 


1608-15 


11-167 


2 11| 


9 31 


989-800 


6-8738 


3 91 


11 


10f 


1625-97 


11 291 


2 112 


9 41 


1003-79 


6-9701 


3 92 


11 


112 


1643-89 


11-415 


3 


9 5 


1017-87 


7-0688 


3 10 


12 


01 


1661-90 


11-534 


3 OJ 


9 5{ 


1032-06 


7-1671 


3 101 


12 


11 


1680-02 


11-666 


3 0} 


9 6| 


1046-35 


7-2664 


3 101 


12 


2 


1698-23 


11-793 


3 02 


9 71 


3 060-73 


7-3662 


3 102 


12 


2f 


1716-54 


11-920 


3 1 


9 81 


1075-21 


7-4661 


3 11 


12 


3f 


1734-94 


12-048 


3 n 


9 9 


1089-79 


7-5671 


3 111 


12 


4f 


1753-45 


12-176 


3 11 


9 9f 


1104-46 


7-6691 


3 111 


12 


52 


1772-05 


12-305 


3 If 


9 101 


1119-24 


7-7791 


3 112 


12 


6 


1790-76 


12-435 


3 2 


9 11| 


1134-12 


7-8681 


4 


12 


62 


1809-56 


12-566 


3 2J 


10 Oi 


1 149-09 


7-9791 


4 02 


12 


71 


1828-46 


12-697 


3 21 


10 Of 


1164-16 


8-0846 


4 01 


12 


88 


1847-45 


12-829 


3 2| 


10 12 


1179-32 


8-1891 


4 02 


12 


91 


1866-55 


12-962 


3 3 


10 21 


1194-59 


8-2951 


4 1 


12 


91 


1885-74 


13-095 


3 3J 


10 32 


1209-95 


8-4026 


4 M 


12 


102 


1905-03 


13-229 


3 3| 


10 4 


1225-42 


8-5091 


4 11 


12 


ill 


1924-42 


13-364 


3 32 


10 4f 


1240-98 


8-6171 


4 12 


13 


02 


1943-91 


13-499 


3 4 


10 5| 


1256-64 


8-7269 


4 2 


13 


l 


1963-50 


13-635 


3 4i 


10 6) 


1272-39 


8-8361 


4 21 


13 


if 


1983-18 


13-772 


3 41 


10 71 


1288-25 


8-9462 


4 21 


13 


2| 


2002-96 


13-909 


3 42 


10 8 


1304-20 


9-0561 


4 22 


13 


38 


2022-84 


14-047 


3 5 


10 82 


1320-25 


9-1686 


4 3 


13 


41 


2042-82 


14-186 - 


3 51 


10 91 


1336-40 


9-2112 


4 31 


13 


5 


2062-90! 14-325 


3 5£ 


io log 


1352-65 


9-3936 


4 31 


13 


5^ 


2083-07 


14-465 


3 52 


io m 


1369-00 


9-5061 


4 32 


13 


el 


2103-35 


14-606 


3 6 


10 11| 


1385-44 


9-6212 


4 4 


13 


?8 


2123-72 1 14-748 


3 6i 


li 02 


1401-98 


9-7364 


4 42 


13 


8f 


2144-1 9 114-890 


3 61 


li il 


1418-62 


9-8518 


4 41 


13 


8f 


2164-75; 15-033 


3 62 


11 21 


1435-36 


9-9671 


4 42 


13 


92 1 


2185-42 


15-176 


3 7 


11 3 


1452-20 


10-084 


4 5 


13 J 


L01 


2206-18 


15-320 


3 7J 


11 3f 


1469-14 


10.202 


4 52 


13 111 , 


2227-05 


15-465 


3 71 


11 4| 


1486-17 


10.320 


4 51 


14 





2248-01 


15-611 


3 72 


11 5§ 


1503-30 


10-439 


4 52 


[4 


Of 


2269 06 1 


15-757 



116 



CIRCUMFERENCES AND 



Dia. in 


Cir 


. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia- in 


Cir 


. in 


Area in 


Area in 


ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


ft. 


in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


4 6 


14 


i! 


2290 22 


15-904 


5 


4 


16 


9 


3216-99 


22-333 


4 61 


14 


2* 


2311-48 


16-051 


5 


41 


16 


n 


3242-17 


22-515 


4 6h 


14 


31 


2332-83 


16-200 


5 


41 


16 


lOf 


3267-46 


22-621 


4 6| 


14 


4 


2354-28 


16-349 


5 


41 


16 


ii* 


3292-83 


22-866 


4 7 


14 


41 


2375-83 


16-498 


5 


5 


17 


0* 


3318-31 


23-043 


4 71 


14 


5* 


2397-48 


16-649 


5 


51 


17 


Of 


3343-88 


23-221 


4 11 


14 


6| 


2419-22 


16-800 


5 


51 


17 


11 


3369-56 


23-330 


4 n 


14 


7* 


2441-07 


16-951 


5 


51 


17 


2i 


3395-33 


23-578 


4 8 


14 


n 


2463-01 


17-104 


5 


6 


17 


3| 


3421-20 


23-758 


4 81 


14 


81 


2485-05 


17-257 


5 


ei 


17 


41 


3447-16 


23-938 


4 -81 


14 


9} 


2507-19 


17-411 


5 


6* 


17 


41 


3473-23 


24-119 


4 8| 


14 101 


2529-42 


17-565 


5 


61 


17 


5| 


3499-39 


24-301 


4 9 


14 


11 


2551-76 


lfc-720 


5 


7 


17 


61 


3525-26 


24-483 


4 91 


14 


Ul 


2574-19 


17-876 


5 


71 


17 


71 


3552-01 


24-666 


4 9£ 


15 


Of 


2596-72 


18-033 


5 


71 


17 


8 


3578-47 


24-850 


4 9| 


15 


it 


2619-35 


18-189 


5 


71 


17 


81 


3605-03 


25-034 


4 10 


15 


21 


2642-08 


18-347 


5 


8 


17 


9! 


-3631-68 


25-220 


4 101 


15 


« 


2664-91 


18-506 


5 


81 


17 


10* 


3658-44 


25-405 


4 101 


15 


n 


2687-83 


18-665 


5 


81 


17 


11* 


3685-29 


25-592 


4 10| 


15 


u 


2710-85 


18-825 


5 


81 


17 


111 


3712-24 


25-779 


4 11 


15 


H 


2733-97 


18-935 


5 


9 


18 


01 


3739-28 


25-964 


4 111 


15 


H 


2757-19 


19-147 


5 


91 


18 


n 


3766-43 


26-155 


4 111 


15 


61 


2780-51 


19-309 


5 


91 


18 


21 


3793-67 


26-344 


4 11| 


15 


n 


2803-92 


19-471 


5 


n 


18 


31 


3821-02 


26-534 


5 


15 


8i 


2827-44 


19-635 


5 


10 


18 


3* 


3848-46 


26-725 


5 01 


15 


91 


2851-05 


19-798 


5 


101 


18 


4^ 


3875-99 


26-916 


5 Oh 


15 


10 


2874-76 


19-963 


5 


10* 


18 


51 


3903-63 


27-108 


5 0J 


15 


10| 


2898-56 


20-128 


5 


101 


18 


61 


3931-36 


27-301 


5 1 


16 


111,2922-47 


20-294 


5 


11 


18 


7 


3959-20 


27-494 


" 5 11 


16 


0* j 2946-47 


20-461 


5 


111 


18 


71 


3987-13 


27-688 


5 l\ 


16 


li 12970-57 


20 629 


5 


111 18 


8| 


4015-16 


27-883 


5 If 


16 


If 2994-77 


20-797 


5 


HI 


18 


91 


4043-28 


28-078 


5 2 


16 


2} 13019-07 


20-965 


6 





18 


10* 


4071-51 


28-274 


5 21 


16 


3.^3043-47 


21-135 


6 


01 


18 


m 


4099-83 


28-471 


5 2i 


16 


4^3067-96 


21-305 


6 


o± 


18 


in 


4128-25 


28 663 


5 2| 


16 


H 


3092-56 


21-476 


6 


01 


19 


01 


4156-77 


28-866 


5 3 


16 


H 


3117-25 


21-647) 


6 


1 


19 


i? 


4185-39 


29-065 


5 3J,lf5 


M 


3142-04 


21-839 


6 


u 


19 


21 


4214-11 


29-264 


5 3J|l6 


71 


3166-92 


21-992 


6 


li 


19 


2* 


4242-92 i 29-466 


5 31 


16 


81 


3191-91 


22-166 


6 


11 


19 


3| 


4271-83 


29-665 



AREAS OF CIRCLES. 



117 



Dia. in 


Cfi 


. in 


Area in 


Area in 


Dia- in 


Cir. in 


Area in 


Area in 


ft. in. 


ft. 


in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


sq. inch. 


sq. ft. 


6 2 


19 


4 


4300-85 29-867 


6 8 


20 U\ 


5026-26 


34-906 


6 21 


19 


n 


4329-95 30-069 


6 8i 


21 01 


5058-02 


35-125 


6 2£ 


19 


6 


4359-16 


30-271 


6 81 


21 OJ 


5089-58 


35-344 


(J 21 


19 


n 


4388-47 


30-475 


6 83 


21 1J 


5-121-24 


35-564 


6 3 


19 


n 


4417-87 


30-679 


6 9 


21 2| 


5153-00 


35-784 


6 3J 


10 


8§ 


4447-37 


30-884 


6 9| 


21 3} 


5184-86 


36-006 


6 3| 


19 


91 


4476-97 


31-090 


6 9J 


21 4 


5216-82 


36-227 


6 3| 


19 


9| 


4506-67 


31-296 


6 9^ 


21 4| 


5248-87 


36-450 


6 4 


19 


loj 


4536-47 


31-503 


6 10 


21 5£ 


5281-02 


36-674 


6 4-i 


19 


a* 


4566-36 


31-710 


6 10* 


21 6| 


5313-27 


36-897 


6 4) 


20 


o* 


4596-35 


31-919 


6 101 


21 n 


5345-62 


37-122 


6 4| 


20 


U 


4626-44 


32-114 


6 lOj 


21 7| 


5378-Q7 


37-347 


6 5 


20 


ij 


4656-63 


32-337 


6 11 


21 8} 


5410-62 


37-573 


6 h\ 


20 


2f 


4686-92 


32-548 


6 Hi 


21 91 


5443-26 


37-700 


6 5} 


20 


3i 


4717-30 


32 759 


6 111 


21 10i 5476-00 


38-027 


6 5£ 


20 


4* 


4747-79 


32-970 


6 llj 


21 11 15508-84 


38-256 


6 6 


20 


5 


4778-37 


33-183 






6 6J 


20 


51 


4809-05 


33-396 






6 6i 


20 


61 


4839-83 


33-619 






6 . 6j 


20 


»l 


4870-70 


33-824 






6 7 


20 


8| 


4901-68 


34-039 






6 7J 


20 


81 


4932-75 


34-255 






6 71 


20 


9* 


4963-92 


34-471 






6 % 


20 


101 


4995-19 


34-688 











118 



CIRCUMFERENCES AND 



Dia. in 


Circum. in 


Area in ft. 


Diara- in 


Circum. in 


Area in ft. 


ft. and in. 


ft. and in. 




ft. and in. 


ft. and in. 




7 


21 11} 


38-4846 


10 


31 


5 


78-5400 


1 


22 3 


39-4060 


1 


31 


81 


79-8540 


2 


22 61 


40-3388 


2 


31 


U* 


81-1795 


3 


22 9i 


41-2825 


3 


32 


n 


82-5190 


4 


23 Of 


. 42-2367 


4 


32 


H 


83-8627 


5 


23 21 


43-2022 


5 


32 


«t 


85-2211 


6 


23 6| 


44-1787 


6 


32 


Hi 


86-5903 


* 7 


23 11 


45-1656 


7 


33 


21 


87-9697 


8 


24 1J 


46-1638 


8 


33 


61 


89-3668 


9 


24 41 


47-1730 


9 


33 


n 


90-7627 


10 


24 7J 


48-1926 


10 


34 


Of 


92-1749 


11 


24 10} 


49-2236 


11 


34 


31 


93-5986 


8 


25 1J 


50-2656 


11 


34 


6| 


95-0334 


1 


25 4| 


51-6178 


1 


34 


9| 


96-4783 


2 


• 25 7f 


52-3816 


2 


35 


01 


97-9347 


3 


25 11 


53-4562 


3 


35 


41 


99-4021 


4 


26 2J 


54-5412 


4 


35 


n 


100-8797 


5 


26 6J 


55-6377 


5 


35 


m 


102-3689 


6 


26 8| 


56-7451 


6 


36 


u 


103-8601 


7 


26 Hi 


57-8628 


7 


36 


41 


105-3794 


8 


27 2} 


58-9920 


8 


36 


71 


106-9013 


9 


27 5J 


60-1321 


9 


36 10J 


108-4342 


10 


27 9 - 


61-2826 


10 


37 


21 


109-9772 


11 


28 01 


62-4445 


H 


37 


H 


111-5319 


9 


28 3| 


63-6174 


12 


37 


8| 


113-0976 


1 


28 6) 


64-8006 


1 


37 


Hi 


114-6732 


2 


28 9} 


65-9951 


2 


38 


2| 


116-2607 


3 


29 Of 


67-2007 


3 


38 


51 


117-8590 


4 


29 3} 


68-4166 


4 


38 


81 


119-4674 


5 


29 7 


69-6440 


5 


39 





121-0876 


6 


29 101 


70-8823 


6 


39 


3J 


122-7187 


7 


30 1J 


72-1309 


7 


39 


6J 


124-3598 


8 


30 4§ 


73-3910 


8 


39 


9| 


126-0127 


9 


30 7£ 


74-6620 


9 


40 


OJ 


127-6765 


10 


30 11| 


75-9433 


10 


40 


3| 


129-3504 


11 


31 lj 


77-2362 


1. 1] 


40 


6f, 


131-0360 



AREAS OF CIRCLES. 



119 



Dia. in 


Circum. in 


Area in ft. 


Diam in 


Circnm. in 


Area in ft . 


ft. and in. 


ft. and in. 




ft. and in. 


ft. and in. 




13 


40 10 


132-7326 


16 


50 3J 


201-0624 


1 


41 U 


134-4391 


1 


50 61 


203-1615 


2 


41 4| 


136-1574 


2 


50 9f 


205-2726 


3 


41 7j 


137-8867 


3 


51 01 


207-3946 


4 


41 10| 


139-6260 


4 


51 34 


209-5264 


5 


42 If 


141-3771 


5 


51 61 


211-6703 


6 


42 4f 


143-1391 


6 


51 10 


213-8251 


7 


42 8 


144-9111 


7 


52 H 


215-9896 


8 


42 11J 


146-6949 


8 


52 41 


218-1662 


9 


43 21 


148-4896 


9 


52 1i 


220-3537 


10 


43 51 


150-2943 


10 


52 101 


222-5510 


11 


43 8| 


152-1109 


11 


53 If 


224-7603 


14 


43 11| 


153-9484 


17 


53 4f 


226-9806 


1 


44 2j 


155-7758 


1 


53 8 


229-2105 


2 


44 6 


157-6250 


2 


53 Hi 


231-4625 


3 


44 9| 


159-4852 


3 


54 2i 


233-7055 


4 


45 0J 


161-3553 


4 


54 5t 


235-9682 


5 


45 31 


163-2373 


5 


54 81 


238-2430 


6 


45 6f 


165-1303 


6 


54 llf 


240-5287 


7 


45 9| 


167-0331 


7 


55 2J 


242-8241 


8 


46 Of 


168-9479 


8 


55 6 


245-1316 


9 


46 4 


170-8735 


9 


55 91 


24^-4500 


10 


46 7* 


172-8091 


10 


56 01 


249-7781 


11 


46 m 


174-7565 


11 


56 31 


252-1184 


15 


47 11 


176-7150 


18 


56 61 


254-4696 


1 


47 4| 


178-6832 


1 


56 9| 


256-8303 


2 


47 7| 


180-6634 


2 


57 0| 


259-2033 


3 


47 10| 


182-6545 


3 


57 4 


261-5872 


4 


48 2J 


184-6555 


4 


57 7i 


263-9807 


5 


48 5| 


186-6684 


5 


57 101 


266-3864 


6 


48 8J 


188-6923 


6 


58 If 


268-8031 


7 


48 llf 


190-7260 


7 


58 41 


271-2293 


8 


49 2| 


192-7716 


8 


58 7| 


273-6678 


9 


49 5J 


194-8282 


9 


58 10| 


276-1171 


10 


49 8| 


196-8946 


10 


59 2 


278-5761 


11 


50 


198-9730 


11 1 


59 5J 


281-0472 



11 



120 



SIZES OF TIN-WARE. 



Sizes of Tin-ware in form of Frustntm of a com. 



PANS. 



Size- 


Diam. 
of top. 


Diam, 

of bot. 


Height. 


Size. 


Diam. 
of top. 


Diam. 
of bot. 


Height 


20 qt. 


lHin 


13 in 


8 in 


2 qt. 


9 in 


6 in 


3f in 


16 " 


18 


Hi 


6* 


3 pt. 


8* 


5| 


2| 


14 " 


15i 


H 


6i 


1 " 


H 


4 


2f 


10 " 


14f 


n 


H 


Pie 


9 


n 


14 


6 " 


12f 


9 


4 











DISH KETTLES AND PAILS. 



Size. • 


Diam. 

of top: 


Diam. 
of bot. 


Height, 


Size, 


Diam, 
of top. 


Diam, 
of bot, 


Height, 


14 qt. 
10 " 


13 in 
Hi 


9 in 
1 


9 in 

8 


6 qt, 
2 " 


9J in 
6i 


5} in 
4 


6 J in 
4 



COFFEE POTS, 



Size. 


Diam. 
of top; 


Diam, 
of bot. 


Height. 


Size, 


Diam. 
of top: 


Diam. 

of bot. 


Height, 


1 gal. 


4 in 


V in 


8£in 


3 qt. 


3£ in 1 6 in ! 8J- in 



WASH BOWLS. 



Size. 


Diam. 

of top, 


Diam/ 
of bot. 


Height, 


Large Wash Bowl 


11 in. 
11 

91 

91 


5 J in. 
H 

61 


5 in. 


Culinder 


5" 


Small Wash Bowl 


31 

83 


Milk Strainer 



SIZES OF TLX-WARE. 



121 



Size, 


Diam, 
of top; 


Diam, 
of bot, 


Height. 


Size, 


Diam, 

of top; 


Diam; 
of bet, 


Height; 


igii. 


H in 


4 in 


4 in 


1 pt. 


4£ in • 3J in 1 


H in 








MEASURES. 






Size. 


Diam, 
of top ; 


Biam, 
of bot, 


Height, 


Size. 


1 Diam, 
of top; 


Diam, 
of bot, 


Height, 


1 gal. 

i " 
1 qt. 


H in 

4 

31 


6i in 

H 

4 


9±. in 

8 

5£ 


1 pt 

1 « 

2 


• 2* in 

1 n 


H in 


4i in 
3^ 



druggists' and liquor dealers' measures. 




Size- 


Diam. 


Diam, 


Height. 


Size. 


Diam. 


Diam. 


Height 




of top. 


of bot. 






of top. 


of bot. 




5 gal. 


8 in 


13£in 


12| in 


i gal. 


3iin 


6| in 


6 in 


3 " 


n 


111 


104 


1 qt. 


n 


H 


** 


2 " 


6 


10J 


n 


1 pt. 


2 


4 


4 


1 " 


H 


8| 


n 


i " 


1 3 


3f 


H 



122 



TABLES OF WEIGHT, ETC. 



American Lap Weled Iron Boiler Flues, Manufac- 
tured by the Reading Iron Company. 



Outside 


W. G. 


Weight per 


Outside 


W, G, 


Weight per 


Diameter. 


Nos, 


Foot, about, 


Diameter, 


Nos: 


Foot, about 


ljrin. 


16 


1 lb. 


Si 


11 


4 


n 


15 


1 1-10 


H 


10 


4f 


If 


14 


H 


4 


10 


H 


■ 2 


13 


2 


5 


9 


n 


n 


12 


H 


6 


8 


10 


H 


12 


n 


7 


1 


13 


2f 


11 


H 


8 


6 




3 


11 


H 









Table of Effects upon Bodies by Heat 

FAHRENHEIT. 

Cast Iron thoroughly smelts at 2754° 

Fine Gold melts " 1983° 

Eine Silver melts " 1850° 

Copper melts " 2160° 

. Brass melt3 " 1900° 

Zinc melts " 740° 

Lead melts " 694° 

Bismuth m^lts " 476° 

Tin melts " 421° 

Tin and Bismuth equal parts melt " 283° 

Tin 3 parts Bismuth 5 and Lead 2 melt " 212 Q 



WATER ' 123 



WEIGHT OF WATER. 

1 cubic inch is equal to .03617 pounds. 

1 2 cubic inches is equal to .434 pounds. 

1 cubic foot is equal to 62.5 pounds. 

1 cubic foot is equal to 7.50 U. S. gallons. 

1.8 cubic feet is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

35.84 cubic feet is equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical inch... is equal to .02842 pounds. 

12 Cylindrical inches . is equal to .341 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical foot, .. . is equal to 49.10 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical foot, ... is equal to 6.00 U. S. gallons. 

2.282 Cylindrical feet .. . is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

45.64 Cylindrical feet . . is equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

11.2 Imperial gallons .. is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

224 Imperial gallons ... is equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

13.44 United States galls, is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

268.8 United States galls, is equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

Centre of pressure is at two-thirds depth from surface. 



EFFECTS PRODUCED BY WATER IN AN 
AERIFORM STATE. 

When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire it readi- 
ly imbibes the heat, or fluid principle of which the fire is the im- 
mediate cause, and sooner or latter, according to the intensity of 
the heat, attains a temperature of 21 2 P Fahrenheit. If, at this 
point of temperature, the water be not enclosed, but exposed to 
atmospheric pressure, ebullition will take place, and steam or vapor 
will ascend through the water, carrying with it the superabundant 
heat, or that which the water cannot, under such circumstances of 
pressure, absorb, to be retained, and to indicate a higher temper- 
ture. 

-; 

Water, in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uniformly confined 
to the same laws, under every degree of pressure ; but, as the pres- 
sure is augmented, so is the indicated temperature proportionately 
elevated. Hence the various densities of steam, and correspond- 
ing degrees of elastic force. 



124 WATEK. 



PRACTICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER. 



By analysis it is ascertained, that water is composed of the 
gises oxygen and hydrogen in a state of chemical union ; its dis- 
tinguishing properties, like that of other liquids, being nearly 
incompressible gravity, capability of flowing, and constant tend- 
ency to press outwards in every direction ; also that of being 
easily changed by the absorption of caloric to an aeriform state of 
any required density or degree of elastic force: hence the prin- 
ciple of the hydraulic press, the water-wheel, the steam engine, &c. 



Effects produced by Water in its Natural State. 

Because of liquids possessing the properties of gravity and 
capability of flowing freely in every direction, sides of vessels, 
flood gates, sluices, &c, sustain a pressure equal to the product 
of the area multiplied by ball' the depth of the fluid, and by its 
gravity in equal terms of unity. 

But when a sluice or opening through which a liquid may issue 
is under any given continued head, the pressure is equal the pro- 
duct of the area multiplied into the height from the centre of the 
opening to the surface of the fluid. 

Example 1. — Required the pressure of water on the sides of a 
cistern 18 feet in length, 13 in width and 9 in depth. 

The terms of measurement or unity are in feet ; 1 cubic foot of 
water = 62-5 lbs. ; hence, 

18 x 9 X 2 + 13 X 9 X 2 — 558 X 4-5 X 62.5 = 156937.5 lbs. 
weight of water on bottom — 18 X 13X9 X 62.5 = 131625 ft>s. 

Example 2. — Required the pressure on a sluice 3 feet square, 
and its centre 30 feet from the surface of the water 

3 X 3 X 30 X 62.5 = 16875 Bbs. pressure. 



HEAT. 125 

HEAT. 
Effects of Seat at certain Temperatures. — Grier. 

Tin and Bismuth, equal parts, melt at 283 degrees, Fahrenheit ; 
tin melts at 442 ; polished steel acquires straw color at 460 ; bis- 
muth melts at 476 ; sulphur burns at 560 ; oil of turpentine boils 
at 560 ; polished steel acquires deep blue color at 580 ; lead melts 
at 594 ; linseed oil boils at 600 ; quicksilver boils at 660 ; zinc melts 
at 700 ; iron, bright red in the dark at 752 ; iron, red-hot in twilight 
at 884 ; red heat fully visible in daylight at 1077 ; brass melts at 
3807; copper melts at 4587; silvers melts at 4717; gold melts at 
5237; welding heat of iron, from 12777; welding heat of iron, to 
13427; greatest heat of smith's forge 17327; cast iron begins to 
melt at 17977; cast iron thoroughly melted at 20577. 



TEMPERING. 

The article after being completed, is hardened by being heated 
gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into cold water; it is 
then tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, either over 
a fire, or on a piece of heated metal till of the color corresponding 
to the purpose for which it is required, as per table below, when it 
is again plunged into water. 

Corresponding Temperature. 
A very pale straw - 430° Lancets ) 
Straw - - 450° Razors ) 

Darker straw - - 470° Penknives) All kinds of wood tools 
Yellow - - - 490° Scissors j" Screw taps. 
Brown yellow - - 500°) Hatchets, Chipping Chisels, 
Slightly tinged purple 520°)- Saws. 

Purple - - - 530°) All kinds of percussive tocls. 
Dark purple - - 550°) a . 
Blue - - - 57o4 S P rm S s ' 
Dark blue - - 600° Soft for saws. 



To Temper by the Thermometer. 

Put the articles to be tempered into a vessel cantaining sufficient 
quantity to cover them, of Oil or Tallow ; Sand ; or a mixture of 8 
parts bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, the whole to be brought up 
to, and kept up at the heat corresponding to the hardness required, 
by means of a suitable thermometer, till heated equally through- 
out; the articles are then withdrawn and plunged into cold water. 

If no thermometer is available, it may be observed that oil or 
tallow begins to smoke at 430° or sTaw color, and that it takes 
fire on a light being presented, and goes out when the light is with- 
drawn, at 570° or blue. 



126 



PROPERTIES OF AIR. 



EFFECTS PRODUCED BY AIR IN ITS NA- 
TURAL AND ALSO IN A RAREFIED 
STATE. 

The weight or pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the weight 
of a column of water 34 feet in height, or to a column of mercury 
30 inches in height, or to 14. 7 lbs. average per square inch, at a 
mean temperature. But air, like all other gases, is rendered light- 
er by the application of heat ; for then the particles of the mass 
are repelled from each other, or rarefied, and occupy a greater 
space. Rarefied air, being specifically lightest, mounts above that 
of common density ; hence change of temperature, and the prin- 
ciple cause of winds. 



Table of the Expansion of Atmospheric Air by Heat. 



Desrreea of 


Bulk. 


Besrees of 


Bulk. 


Degrees of 


Bulk. 


Fahrenheit. 




Fahrenheit. 




Fahrenheit. 




32° 


1000 


65° 


1077 


100° 


1152 


35 


Hi07 


70 


1089 


120 


1194 


40 


1021 


75 


1009 


140 


1235 


45 


1032 


80 


1110 


160 


1275 


50 


1043 


85 


1121 


180 


1315 


55 


1055 


90 


1132 


200 


1364 


60 


1066 


95 


1142 


212 


1376 



The pressure or gravity of the atmosphere, being equal to a 
column of water 34 feet in heieht, is the means or principle on 
which rests the utility of the common pump, also of the syphon 
and all other such hydraulic applications. In a pump, the inter- 
nal pressure on the surface of the liquid is removed by the action 
of the bucket; and as by degrees the density becomes lessoned, 
so the water rises by the external pressure to the above named 
height ; and at such height it will remain, unless, by some de- 
rangement of construction taking place, the atmospheric fluid is 
allowed to enter and displace the liquid column. But observe, if 
the temperature of the water or other liquid be so elevated that 
steam or vapor arise through it, then, according to the vapor's ac- 
cumulation of density, may the action of the pump be partially or 
wholly destroyed ; and the only means of' evasion in such cases is, 
to place the working bucket beneath the surface of the liquid 
which is required to be raised. 



TIN PLATES. 



127 



8ize 7 Length, Breadth and Weight. 





No. of 










Brand Mark- 


Sheets 


Length and 


Weight per 






in Box. 


Breadth, 




Box. 








Inches. Inches. 


Cwt, 


qr. lbs. 




1 c 


225 


14 by 10 


1 





"" 


1 X 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 




1 XX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 21 




1 XXX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


2 14 


» 


1 xxxx 


225' 


14 by 10 


1 


3 7 




1 xxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 







1 xxxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 


21 


- 


D 


100 


17 by 12* 





3 14 




D x 


100 


17 by 12* 


1 


14 




D xx 


100 


17 by 12* 


1 


1 7 




D xxx 


100 


17 by 12* 


1 


2 




D xxxx 


100 


17 by 12* 


1 


2 21 




D xxxxx 


100 


17 by 121 


1 


3 14 




D xxxxxx 


100 


17 by 12* 


2 


7 




S D C 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


1 27 




S D x 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


2 20 




S D xx 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


3 13 




S D xxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


6 




S D xxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


27 




S D xxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


1 20 




S D xxxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


2 13 





Crystallized Tin-Plate. 

Crystallized tin-plate, is a variegated primrose appearance, pro- 
duced upon the surface of tin-plate, by applying to it in a heated 
state some dilute nitro-muriatic acid for a few seconds, then wash- 
ing it with water, drying, and coating it with lacker. The figures 
are more or less beautiful and diversified, according to the degree 
of heat, and relative dilution of the acid. Place the tin-plate 
slightly heated over a tub of water, and rub its surface with a sponge 
diped in a liquor composed of four parts of aquafortis, and two of 
distilled water, holding one of common salt sal ammoniac in solu- 
tion. Whenever the crystalline spangles seem to be thoroughly 
brought out, the plate must be immersed in water, washed either 
with a feather or a little cotton (taking care not to rub off the film 
of tin that forms the feathering), forthwith dried with a low heat, 
and coated with a lacker varnish, otherwise it loses its lustre in the 
air. If the whole surface is not plunged at once in cold water, but 
if it be partially cooled by sprinkling water on it, the crystalliztion 
will be finely variegated with large and small figures. Similar results 
will be obtained by blowing cold air through a pipe on the tinned 
surface, while it is just passing from the fused to the solid state. 



128 



WEIGHTS OF LEAD PIPES, ETC. 



List of Calibre and Weights of Lead Pipe. 



Calibre. 


Weight 


Av. 


Calibre. 


Weight 
per foot. 


Av. 




per ft- 


length. 




length. 




lhs. oz. 


ft. 




lbs. oz. 


ft. 


i in. light 


8 


300 


1-J- in. medium . 


5 4 


28 


strong . . . 


12 


225 


strong . . . 


6 4 


24 


ex. strong 


1 4 


120 


ex. strong 


7 2 


21 


f in. light 


12 


225 


If in. ex. light . 


3 12 


42 


medium . . 


1 


150 


light 


4 8 


33 


strong . . . 


1 8 


100 


medium. . 


5 8 


27 


ex. strong 


2 


75 


strong . . . 


6 8 


23 


% in. light 


1 


150 


ex. strong 


8 4 


18 


medium . . 


1 4 


120 


2 in. ex- light . 


4 8 


33 


strong . . . 


1 12 


85 


light 


5 8 


27 


ex. strong 


2 7 


60 


medium. . 


1 


21 


f in. ex. light . 


1 4 


120 


strong . . . 


8 


18 


light .... 


1 12 


85 


ex. strong 


9 8 


15 


medium . . 


2 4 


65 


2i in. 3-16 thick 


1 13 


15 


strong . . 7 


2 8 


60 


i thick . . 


8 13 


15 


ex. strong 


3 


50 


5-16 thick 


13 11 


15 


£ in. ex. light . 


1 8 


100 


| thick . . 


16 12 


15 


light 


2 


75 


3 in. waste. . . 


6 


15 


medium .. 


2 8 


60 


3-16 thick 


9 5 


15 


strong . . . 


3 


50 


i thick . . 


12 10 


15 


ex. strong 


3 10 


43 


5 16 thick 


16 


15 


1 in. ex. light . 


2 4 


65 


■f thick . . 


19 11 


15 


light .... 


2 12 


55 


3} in. J- thick . 


15 


15 


medium . . 


3 8 


45 


5-16 thick 


18 5 


15 


strong . . . 


4 


38 


f thick . . 


21 12 


15 


ex. strong 


3 12 


42 


7-16 thick 


26 41 


15 


1J in. ex. light . 


2 12 


55 


4 in. waste. . . . 


5 5 


15 


light 


3 4 


46 


i thick . . 


16 12 


15 


medium . . 


4 


38 


5-16 thick 


21 


15 


strong . . . 


4 8 


33 


f- thick . . 


25 4 


15 


ex. strong 


6 


25 


7-16 thick 


30 


15 


1$ in. ex. light . 


3 8 


45 


4 J in. waste. . . . 


5 12 


15 


light 


4 4 


35 


5 in. waste. . . . 


8 


15 



Calibre & Weights of Fountains or Aqueduct Pipes. 

Very light Lead Pipe for Hydraulic Rams, and for conducting water at long dis- 
tances, under slight pressure or head of water. 

i inch 6 1600 I f inch I 2 550 

■finch 8 1200 |l inch 112 400 

\ inch 10 1000 1J inch 2 250 

finch 12 900 Hindi 2 4 200 



WEIGHTS OF PIPES, ETC. 



129 



To ascertain the Weights of Pipes of various Metals, 
and any Diameter required. 





TMch, 


Wr'ght 


Copper, 


Lead. 


Thick. 


Wr'ght 


Copper. 


Lead 




inch. 


Iron. 






Inch. 


Iron. 






* 


1-32 
















.326 


.38 


.483 


5-82 


1.627 


1.9 


2.417 




1-16 


.653 


.76 


.967 


3-16 


1.95 


2.28 


2.9 




3-32 


.976 


1.14 


1.45 


7-32 


2.277 


2.66 


3.S83 




1-8 


1.3 


1.52 


1.933 


1-4 


2.6 


3.04 


3.867 



Rule. — To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inches, add the 
thickness of the metal ; multiply the sum by the decimal number 
opposite the required thickness and under the metal's name ; also 
by the length of the pipe in feet ; and the product is the weight of 
the pipe in pounds. 

1. Required the weight of a copper pipe, whose interior diameter 
is 2J inches, its length 20 feet, and the metal -J of an inch in thick- 
ness. * 

2.25 + .125 = 2.375 X 1.52 x 20 ===== 72.2 Bbs. 



Weight of a Square Foot of Sheel-Iron, Copper, and 
Brass, as per Birmingham Wire Gauge. 



No. of 


Iron. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


No. of 


Iron. 


Galv. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


Guage. 








Guage, 




Iron- 






1 


12.5 


14.5 


13.75 


16 


2.62 


3. 


2.9 


2.75 


2 


12. 


13.9 


13.2 


17 


2.20 


2.69 


2.52 


2.4 


3 


11. 


12.75 


12,1 


18 


1.92 


2.31 


2.15 


2.04 


4 


10.5 


11.6 


11. 


19 


1.75 


2.07 


1.97 


1.87 


5 


9. 


10.1 


9.61 


20 


1.54 


1.75 


1.78 


1.69 


6 


8.34 


94 


8.93 


21 


1.4 


1.5 


1.62 


1.54 


7 


7.5 


8.7 


8.25 


22 


1.25 


1.32 


1.45 


1.37 


8 


6.86 


7.9 


7.54 


23 


1.13 


1.19 


1.3 


1.23 


9 


6.29 


7.2 


6.86 


24 


1.02 


1.06 


1.16 


1.1 


10 


562 


6.5 


6.18 


25 


.9 


1. 


1.04 


.99 


11 


5. 


5.8 


5.5 


26 


.8 


.96 


.92 


.88 


12 


4.5 


5.08 


4.81 


27 


.75 


.88 


.83 


.79 


13 


4. 


4.34 


4.12 


28 


.65 


.75 


.74 


.7 


14 


3.23 


3.6 


3.43 


29 


.58 


.69 


.64 


.61 


15 


2.97 


3.27 


3.1 


I 











130 



WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 



Recapitulation of Weights of Various Substances. 



Cubic feet in lbs. 


Cubic inch in lbs. 


450.55 


.2607 


486.65 


.2816 


489.8 


.2834 


555. 


.32118 


708.85 


.41015 


537.75 


.3112 


456. 


.263 


29.56 


.0171, 


64.3 


.03721 


62.5 


.03616 


.07529 





.03689 






Cast iron 

Wrought iron. 

Steel 

Copper 

Lead 



Tin 

White pine 
Salt water (sea). 
Fresh water 

Air 

Steam 



Cast Iron expands 1T2T00 of its length for one degree of heat ; 
greatest change in the shade, in this climate ™V °^ * ts ^ en S tn » 
exposed to the sun's rays, ~- Q ; shrinks in cooling from ^ 5 to - g 
of its length ; is crushed by a force of 93.000 lbs. upon a square 
inch; will bear, without permanent alteration, 15.300 Bbs. upon 
a square inch, and an extension of j^o °^ * ts ^ en S tn ' Weight 
of modulus of elasticity for a base of an inch square, 18,400,000 
ft>s. ; height of modulus of elasticity, 5,750,000 feet. 

Wrought Iron expands 143000 of its length for one degree of 
heat ; will bear, on a square inch, without permanent alteration, 
17,800 ft>s., and an extension in length of ^^ ; cohesive force is 
diminished 3^5 by an increase of one degree of heat. Weight 
of modulus of elasticity for a base of an inch square, 24,920,000 
lbs. ; height of modulus of elasticity 7,550,000 feet. 



[The following Receipts are selected from " Ure's Dictionary," "Cooley'a Cy- 
clopedia," " Muspratt's Chemistry," and other valuable sources.] 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 

Japanning is the art of covering bodies by grounds of opaque 
colors in varnish, which may be afterwards decorated by printing 
or gilding, or left in a plain state. It is also to be looked upon in 
another sense, as that of ornamenting coaches, snuff boxes, screens, 
&c. All surfaces to be japanned must be perfectly clean, and 
leather should be stretched on frames. Paper should be stiff for 
japanning. 

The French prime all their japanned articles, the English do 
not. This priming is generally of common size. Those articles, 
that are primed thus, never endure as well as those that receive tho 
japan coating on the first operation, and thus it is that those ar- 
ticles of japan work that are primed with size when they are used 
for some time, crack, and the coats of japan fly off in flakes. 

A solution of strong isinglass size and honey, or sugar candy, 
makes a good japan varnish to cover water colors on gold grounds. 

A pure white priming for japanning, for the cheap method, is 
made with parchment size, and one-third of isinglass, laid on very 
thin and smooth. It is the better for three coats, and when the 
last coat is dry, it is prepared to receive the painting or figures. 
Previous to the last coat, however, the work should be smoothly 
polished. When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no prim- 
ing used, the best plan is to lay on two or three coats of varnish 
made of seed-lac and resin, two ounces each, dissolved in alcohol 
and strained through a cloth. This varnish should be put on in a 
warm place, and the work to be varnished should, if possible, be 
warm also, and all dampness should be avoided, to prevent the 
varnish from being chilled. When the work is prepared with the 
above composition and dry, it is fit for the proper jopan to be laid 
on. If the ground is not to be white the best varnish now to be 
used is made of shellac, as it is the best vehicle for all kind of 
colors. This is made in the proportions of the best shellac, five 
ounces, made into powder, steeped in a quart of alcohol, and kept 

12 [1311 



132 PRACTICAL . RECEIPTS. 

at a gentle heat for two or three days and shaken frequently, after 
which the solution must be filtered through a flannel bag, and kept 
in a well corked bottle for use. This varnish for hard japanning 
on copper or tin will stand for ever, unless fire or hammer be used 
to burn or beetle it off. 

The color to be used with shellac varnish may be of any pig- 
ments whatever to give the desired shade, as this varnish will mix 
with tny color. 

WHITE JAPAN GROUND. 

To form a hard, perfect white ground is no easy matter, 
as the substances which are generally used to make the japan 
hard, have a tendency, by a number of coats, to look or 
become dull in brightness. One white ground is made by 
the following composition : white flake or lead washed over and 
ground up with a sixth of its weight of starch, then dried and 
mixed with the finest gum, ground up in parts of one ounce gum, 
to half an ounce of rectified turpentine mixed and ground thor- 
oughly together. This is to be finely laid on the article to be jap- 
anned, dried, and then varnished with five or six coats of the fol- 
lowing : two ounces of the whitest seed-lac to three ounces of gum- 
anima reduced to a fine powder and dissolved in a quart of alcohol. 
This lac must be carefully picked. For a softer varnish than this, 
a little turpentine should be added, and less of the gum. A very 
good varnish and not brittle, may be made by dissolving gum- 
anima in nut oil, boiling it gently as the gum is added, and giving 
the oil as much gum as it will take up. The ground of white var- 
nish may of itself be made of this varnish, by giving two or three 
coats of it, but when used it should be diluted with pure turpen- 
tine. Although this varnish is not brittle it is liable to be indent- 
ed with strokes, and it will not bear to be polished, but. if well 
laid on it will not need polishing afterwards ; it also takes some 
time to dry. Heat applied to all oils, however, darkens their 
color, and oil varnishes for white grow very yellow if not exposed 
to a full clear light. 

GUM COPAL. 

Copal varnish is one of the very finest varnishes for japan- 
ing purposes. It can be dissolved by linseed oil, rendered dry by 
adding some quicklime at a heat somewhat less than will boil 
or decompose the oil by it. 

This solution, with the addition of a little turpentine, forms a 
very transparent varnish, which, when properly applied and slowly 
dried is very hard and durable. This varnish is applied to snuff 
boxes, tea boards and other utensils. It also preserves paintings 
and renders their surfaces capable of reflecting light more uni- 
formly. 

If powered copal be mixed in a mortar with camphor, it softens 
and becomes a coherent mass, and if camphor be added to alcohol 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 133 

it becomes an excellent solvent cf copr>l by adding the copal well 
ground, and employing a tolerable degree of heat, having the 
vessel well corked which must have a long neck for the allowance 
of expansion, and the vessel must only be about one-fourth filled 
with the mixture. Copal can also be incorporated with turpen- 
tine, with one part of powdered copal to twelve parts of pure tur- 
pentine, subjected to-ihe heat of a sand-bath for several days in 
a long necked mattress, shaking it frequently. 

Copal is a good varnish for metals, such as tin ; the varnish must 
be dried in an oven, each coat, and it can be colored with some 
substances, but alcohol varnish will mix with any coloring matter. 
For white japans or varnishes, we have already shown that fine 
chalk or white lead was used as a basis, and the varnishes coated 
over it. 

To japan or varnish white leather, so that it may be elastic, is 
altogether a different work from varnishing or japanning wood or 
metal, or papier mache. 

For white leather oil is the principal ingredient, as it is well 
known that chalk is extensively used to give white leather its pure 
color, or speaking more philosophically, its fair colorless whiteness. 
White leather having already the basis 6f white varnish, it should 
get a light coat of the pure varnish, before mentioned, and dried 
well in the oven, or a coat of the oil copal will answer very well. 
This being well dried, boiled nut oil nrcely coated and successively 
dried, will make a most beautiful white varnish for leather, not li- 
able to crack. This quality takes a long time to dry, and. of course 
is more expensive. Coarse varnish may be made of boiled linseed 
oil, into which is added gradually the acetate of lead as a drier. 
This addition must be done very cautiously as the oil will be apt to 
foam over. 

A better and more safe drying mixture than the mere acetate of 
lead, is, to dissolve the acetate of lead in a small quantity of water, 
neutralize the acid with the addition of pipe clay, evaporate the 
sediment to perfect dryness, and feed the oil when gently boiling 
gradually with it. 

These varnishes or japans^ as far as described, have only refer- 
ence to white grounds. 

There is some nice work to be observed, and there is much in 
applying the varnishes at the. right time, knowing by the eye the 
proper moment when the mixture is perfect, or when to add any 
ingredient. These things require practice. 

BLACK GROUNDS. 

Black grounds for japans may be made by mixing ivory 
black with shellac varnish ; or for coarse work, lamp black and 
the top coating of common seedlac varnish. A common black 
japan may be made by painting a piece of work with drying 
oil, (oil mixed with lead,) and putting the work into a stove, not 
too hot, but of such a degree, gradually raising the heat and keep- 



134 . PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

ing it up for a long time, so as not to burn the oil and make it 
blister. This process makes very fair japan and requires no pol- 
ishing. 

BLACK JAPAN. 

Naples asphaltum fifty pounds, dark gum-amime eight pounds, 
use, add linseed oil twelve gallons, boil, add dark gum amber ten 
pound?, previously fused and boiled with linseed oil two gallons, 
add the driers, and proceed as last. Used for wood or metals. 

BRUNSWICK BLACK. 

1. Foreign asphaltum forty-five pounds, drying oil six gallons, 
litharge six pounds, boil as last, and thin with twenty five gal- 
lons oi oil of turpentine. Used for ironwork. &c. 2. Black pitch 
and gas tar asphaltum, of each twenty-five pounds, boil gently 
for five hours, then add linseed oil eight gallons, litharge and red 
lead, of each ten pounds, boil as before, and thin with oil of tur- 
pentine twenty gallons. Inferior to the last, but cheaper. 

BLUE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

• 

Blue japan gronuds may be formed of bright Prussian blue. The 
color may be mixed with shellac varnish, and brought to a polish- 
ing state by five or six coats of varnish of seed-lac. The varnish, 
however, is apt to give a greenish tinge to the blue, as the varnish 
has a yellowish tinge, and blue and yellow form a green. When- 
ever a light blue is desired, the purest varnish must always be 
used. 

SCARLET JAPAN. 

Ground vermilion may be used for this, but being so glaring it 
is not beautiful unless covered over with rose-pink or lake, which 
have a good effect when thus used. For a very bright crimson 
ground, safilower or Indian lake should be used, always dissolved 
in the alchohol of which the varnish is made. In place of this 
lake, carmine may be used, as it is more common. The top coat of 
varnish must always be of the white seed-lac, which has been be- 
fore described, and as many coats given as will be thought prop- 
er ; it is easy to judge of this. 

TELLOW GROUNDS. 

If turmeric be dissolved in the spirit of wine and strained through 
a cloth, and then mixed with pure seed-lac varnish, it makes a good 
yellow japan. Saffron will answer for the same purpose in the 
same way, but the brightest yellow ground is made bv a primary 
coat of pure crome yellow, and coated successively with the varn- 
ish. Dutch pink is used for a kind of cheap yellow japan ground. 
If a little dragon's blood be added to the varnish for yellow japan, 
a most beautiful and rich salmon-colored varnish is the result, and 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 135 

by these two mixtures all the shades of flesh-colored japans are 
produced. 

GREEN JAPAN GROUNDS. 

A good green may be made by mixing Prussian blue along with 
the cromate of lead, or with turmeric, or orpimenfr, (sulphuret of 
arsenic) or ochre, only the two should be ground together and dis- 
solved in alcohol and applied as a ground, then coated with four 
or five coats of shellac varnish, in the manner already described. 
A very bright green is made by iaying on a ground of Dutch 
metal, or leaf of gold, and then coating it over with distilled ver- 
digris dissolved in alcohol, then the varnishes on the top. This is 
a splendid green, brilliant and glowing. 

ORANGE COLORED GROUNDS. 

Orange grounds may be made of yellow mixed with vermillion 
or carmine, just as a bright or rather inferior color is wanted. The 
yellow should always be in quantity to make a good full color, and 
the red added in proportion to the depth of shade. If there is not 
a good full body of yellow, the color will look watery, or bare, as 
it is technically termed. 

PURPLE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

This is made by a mixture of lake and Prussian blue or carmine, 
or for an inferior color vermilion, and treated as the foregoing. 
When the ground is laid on and perfectly dried, a fine coat of pure 
boilled nut oil then laid on and perfectly dried, is a good method to 
have a japan, not liable to crack. But a better plan is to use this 
i oil in the varnish given, the first coat, after the ground is laid on, 
and which should contain considerable of pure terpentine. In 
every case where oil is used for any purpose for varnish, it is all the 
better if turpentine is mixed with it. Turpentine enables oils to 
mix with either alcohol or water. Alkalies have this property also. 

BLACK JAPAN. 

1. Asphaltum three ounces, boiled oil four quarts, burnt umber 
eight ounces. Mix by heat, and when cooling thin with turpentine. 
2. Amber twelve ounces, asphaltum two ounces ; fuse by heat, add 
boiled oil half a pint, resin two ounces ; when cooling add sixteen 
ounces oil of turpentine. Both are used to varnish metals. 

JAPAN BLACK FOR LEATHER. 

1. Burnt umber four ounces, true asphaltum two ounces, boiled 
oil two quarts. Dissolve the asphaltum by heat in a little of the 
oil, add the burnt umber ground in oil, and the remainder of the 
oil, mix, cool and thin with turpentine. Flexible. 2. Shellac one 
part, wood naphtha four parts, dissolve, and color with lampblack. 
Inflexible. 



136 PBACTICAL BECEIPTS. 



TRANSPARENT JAPAN. 



Oil of turpentine four ounces, oil of lavender three ounces, cam- 
phor one-half drachm, copal one ounce ; dissolve. Used to japan 
tin, but quick copal varnish is mostly used instead. 

JAPANNERS* COPAL VARNISH. 

Pale African copal seven pounds, fuse, add clarified linseed oil 
one half gallon, boil for five minutes, remove it into he topen air, 
add boiling oil of turpentine three gallons, mix well, strain it into 
the cistern, and cover it up immediately. Used to varnish furni- 
ture, and by japanners, coacemakers, &c. Dries in 15 minutes, 
and may be polished as soon as hard. 

TORTOISE SHELL JAPAN. 

This varnish is prepared by taking of good linseed oil one gal 
Ion, and of umber half a pound, and boiling them together until 
the oil becomes very brown and thick,, when they are strained 
through a cloth and boiled again until the composition is about 
the consistence of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having prepared 
this varnish, clean well the copper or iron plate or vessel that is 
to be varnished, (japanned,) and then lay vermillion, mixed with 
shellac varnish, or with drying oil, diluted with turpentine, very 
thinlv on the places intended to imitate the clean parts of the tor- 
toise shell. When the vermillion is dry brush over the whole with 
the above umber varnish diluted to a due consistence with tur- 
pentine, and when it is set and firm, it must be put into a stove 
and undergo a strong heat for a long time, even two weeks will 
not hurt it. This is the ground for those beautiful snuff boxed 
and tea boards which are so much admired, and those grounds can 
be decorated with all kinds of paintings that fancy may suggest, 
and the work is all the better to be finished in an annealing oven. 

PAINTING JAPAN WORK. 

The colors to be painted are tempered, generally, in oil, which 
should have at least one-fourth of its weight of gum sandarach, or 
mastic dissolved in it, and it should be well diluted with turpen- 
tine, that the colors may be laid on thin and evenly. In some 
instances it does well to put on water colors or grounds of gold, 
which a skilful hand can do and manage so as to make the work 
appear as if it was embossed. These water colors are best prepar- 
ed by means of isinglass size, mixed with honey, or sugar candy. 
Tnese colors when laid on must receive a number of upper coats 
of the varnish we have described before. 

JAPANNING OLD TEA-TRAYS. 

First clean them thoroughly with soap and water and a little rot- 
ten stone ; then dry them by whiping and exposure at the fire. 
Now, get seme good copal varnish, mix with it some bronze pow- 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 137 

der, and apply with a brush to the denuded parts. After which 
set the tea-tray in an oven at a heat of 212° or 300° until the var- 
nish is dry. Two coats will make it equal to new. 

JAPAN FINISHING. 

The finishing part of japanning lies in laying on and polishing 
the outer coats of varnish, which is necessary in all painted or 
simply ground colord japan work. When brightness and clearness 
are wanted, the white kind of varnish is necessary, for seed-lac 
varnish, which is the hardest and most tenacious, imparts a yellow 
tinge. A mixed varnish, we believe, is the best for this purpose, 
that is, for combining hardness and purity. Take then three 
ounces of seed-lac, picked very carefully from all sticks and dirt 
and washing it well with cold water, stirring it up, pouring it off, 
and continuing the process until the water runs oft perfectly pure. 
Dry it and then reduce it to powder, and put it with a pint of al- 
cohol into a bottle, of which it must occupy only two- thirds of its 
space. This mixture must be shaken well together and the bottle 
kept at a gentle heat fbeing corked) until the lac be dissolved. 
When this is the case, the clear must be poured off, and the re- 
mainder strained through a cloth, and all the clear, strained and 
poured, must be kept in a well stopped bottle. The manner of 
using this seed-lac varnish is the same as that before described, 
and a fine polishing varnish is made by mixing this with pure 
white varnish. The pieces of work to be varnished for finishing 
should be placed near a stove, or in a warm, dry room, and one 
coat should be perfectly dry before the other is applied. The varn- 
ish is applied by proper brushes, beginning at the middle, passing 
the* stroke to one end and with the other stroke from the middle to 
the other end. Great skill is displayed in laying on these coats of 
varnish. If possible the skill of hand should never cross, or twice 
pass over in giving one coat. When one coat is dry another must 
be laid over it, and so on successively for a number of coats, so 
that the coating shonld be sufficiently thick to stand fully all the 
polishing, so as not to bare the surface of the colored work. When 
a sufficient number of coats are thus laid on, the work is fit to be 
polished, which, in common cases, is commenced with a rag dipped 
in finely powdered rotten stone, and towards the end of the rub- 
bing a little oil should be used along with the powder, and when 
the work appears fine and glossy a little oil should be used alone 
to clean off the powder and give the work a still brighter hue. In 
very fine work, French whiting should be used, which should be 
washed in water to remove any sand that might be in it. Pumice 
stone ground to a very fine powder is used for the first part of 
polishing, and the finishing done with whiting. It is always best 
to dry the varnish of all japan work by heat. For wood work, heat 
must be sparingly used, but for metals the varnish should be dried 
in ar> oven, also for papier mache and leather. The metal will 
stanci the greatest heat, and care must betaken not to darken by 



138 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

too high a temperature. When gold size is nsed in guilding for 
japan work, where it is desired not to have the gold shine, or ap- 
pear burnished, the gold size should be used with a little of the 
spirits of turpentine and a little oil, but when a considerable de- 
gree of lustre is wanted without burnishing and the* preparation 
necessary for it, a little of the size along with oil alone should be 
used. 



• VARNISHES— MISCELLANEOUS. 

Different substances are employed for making varnish, the cb- 
ject being to produce a liquid easily applied to the surface of cloth, 
paper or metal, which, when dry, will protect it with a fine skin. 
Gums and resins are the substances employed for making varn- 
ishes; they are dissolved either in turpentine, alcohol, or oil, in a 
close stone ware, glass or metal vessel, exposed to a low heat, as 
the case may require, or cold. The alcohol or turpentine dissolv- 
es the gum or resin, and holds them in solution, and after the ap- 
plication of the varnish, this mixture being mechanical, the moist- 
ure of the liquid evaporates, and the gum adheres to the article to 
which it is applied. 



The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to the var- 
nish-maker. Oil from fine full-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a 
vial, will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant ; it is mellow and 
sweet to the taste, has very little smell, is specifically lighter than 
impure oil, and, when clarified, dries quickly and firmly, and does 
not materially change the color of the varnish when made, but ap- 
pears limpid and brilliant. 



The following are the chief Resins employe^ in the manufacture 
of Varnishes 

AMBER. 

This resin is most distinguished for durability. It is usually of 
some shade of yellow, transparent, hard and moderately tough. 
Heated in air, it fuses at about 549 Q ; it burns with a clear flame, 
emitting a pleasant odor., 

ANIME. 

This is imported from the East Indies. The large, transparent, 
pale-yellow pieces, with vitreous fracture, are best suited for var- 
nish. Inferior qualities are employed for manufacturing gold-size 
or j lpan-black. Although superior to amber in its capacity for 
d lying, and equal in hardness, varnish made from anime deepens 
in color on exposure to air, and is very liable to crack. It is,. 
however, much used for mixing with copal varnish. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 139 



This is a gum-resin but little used in varnishes, on account of 
its costliness. 

COLOPHONY. 

This resin is synonymous with arcanson and rosin. When th e 
resinous juce of Pinus Sylvestris and other varities is distilled, 
colophony remains in the retort. Its dark color is due to the 
action of the fire. Dissolved in linseed oil, or in turpentine by 
the aid of heat, colophony forms a brilliant, hard, but brittle 
varnish. 

COPAL. 

This is a gum-resin of immense importance to the varnish-makeT. 
It consists of several minor resins of different degrees of solubility. 
In durability, it is only second to amber. When made into var- 
nish, the better sorts become lighter in color by exposure to air. 

Copal is generally imported in large lnmps about the size of 
potatoes. The clearest and palest are selected for what is called 
body-gum ; the second best forms carriage-gum; whilst the residue, 
freed from the many impurities with which it is associated, con- 
stitutes worst quality, fitted only for japan-black or gold-size. 

In alcohol, copal is but little soluble ; but it is said to become 
more so by reducing it to a fine powder, and exposing it to atmos- 
pheric influences for twelve months. Boiling alcohol or spirit of 
turpentine, when poured upon fused copal, accomplishes its com- 
plete solution, provided the solvent be not added in too large pro- 
portions at a time. The addition of camphor also promotes the 
solubility of copal ; so likewise does oil of rosemary. 

DAMMARA. 

This is a tasteless, inodorous, whitish resin, easily soluble in oils. 
It is not so hard as mastic, with which it forms a good admixture. 

ELEMI. 

This is a resin of a yellow color, semi-transparent, and of faint 
fragrance. Of the two resins which it contains, one is crystalliz- 
abie and soluble in cold alcohol. 

LAC. 

This constitutes the basis of spirit- varnish. The resin is soluble 
in strong alcohol aidedjbv heat. Its solution in ammonia may be 
used as a varnish, when the articles coated with it are not expos- 
ed more than an hour or two at a time to water. 

MASTIC. 

This is a soft resin of considerable lustre. The two sorts in com- 
merce are, in tears and the common mastic, the former is the 
purer of the two. It consists of two resins, one of which is solu- 
ble in dilute alcohol. With oil of turpentine, it forms a very pale 



140 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

varnish, of great lustre, which flows readily, and works easily. 
Moreover, it can be readily removed by friction with the hand; 
hence its use for delicate work of every description. 

SANDARACH. 

This is a pale, odorous resin, less hard than lac, with which it is 
often associated as a spirit-varnish. It consists of three resins 
differing as to solubility in alcohol, either, and turpentine. It 
forms a good pale varnish for light-colered woods ; when required 
to be polished, Venice turpentine is added to give it body. 

Of the solvents of these various resins, little need be said. In 
the manufacture of varnishes, great care, as well as cleanliness, are 
required. The resins should be washed in hot water, to free them 
from particles of dust and dirt; they should be dried and assorted 
according to their color, reserving the lightest shades for the best 
kinds of varnish. 

The linseed-oil should be as pale colored, and as well clarified as 
possible. New oil always contains mucilage, and more or less of 
foreign matters ; as these prevent the regular absorption of oxy- 
gen, the oil requires preliminary treatment. The common plan is 
to boil it with litharge ; but such oil varnish is inferior to that 
prepared with sulphate of lead. 

The best method is to rub up linseed-oil with dry sulphate of 
lead, in sufficient quantity to form a milky mixture. After a 
week's exposure to the light, and frequent shaking, the mucus de- 
posits with the sulphate of lead, and leaves the oil perfectly clear. 
The precipitated slime forms a compact membrane over the lead, 
hardening to such an extent that the clarified oil may be readily 
poured off. 

TURPENTINE. 

This is of very extensive use. The older it is, the more ozoni- 
zed, the better it is. Turpentine varnishes dry much more readily 
than oil varnishes, are of a lighter color, more flexible and cheap. 
They are, however, neither so tough nor so durable. * 

ALCOHOL. 

This is employed as the solvent of sandarach and of lac. The 
stronger, cceteris paribus , the better. 

NAPHTHA AND METHYLAMED SPIRIT OP WINE. 

These are used for the cheaper varnishes. Their smell is dis- 
agreeable. The former is, however, a better solvent of resins than 

alcohol." 

SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

These varnishee may be readily colored — red, by dragon's blood ; 
yellow, by gamboge. If a colored varnish is required, clearly no 
account need be taken of the color of the resins. Lac varnish may 
be bleached by Mr. Lemming's process : — Dissolve five ounces of 
shellac in a quart of spirit of wine ; boil for a few minntes with 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 14l 

ten ounces of well-burnt and recently-heated animal charcoal, 
when a small quantity of the solution should be drawn off and filt- 
ered : if not colorless, a little more charcoal should be added. 
When all tinge i3 removed, press the liquor through silk, as linen 
absorbs more varnish ; and afterwards filter it through fine blot- 
ting-paper. Dr. Hare proceeds as follows: — Dissolve in an iron 
kettle about one part of pearlash in about eight parts of water, 
add one part of shell or seed, lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. 
When the 15c is dissolved, cool the solution, and impregnate, it 
with chlorine gas till the lac is all precipitated. The precipitate 
is white, but the color deepens by washing and consolidation. 
Dissolved in alcohol, lac bleached by this process yields a varnish,, 
which is as free from color as any copal varnish. 

One word in conclusion with reference to all spirit varnishes. A 
damp atmosphere is sufficient to occasion a milky deposit of resin, 
owing to the diluted spirit depositing a portion : in such case the 
varnish is said to be chilled. 

ESSENCE VARNISHES. 

They do not differ essentially in their manufacture from spirit 
varnishes. The polish produced by them is more durable, although 
they take a longer time to dry. # 

OIL VABNISHES. 

The most durable and lustrous of varnishes are composed of a 
mixture of resin, oil, and spirit of turpentine. The oils most fre- 
quently employed are linseed and walnut ; the resins chiefly copal 
and amber. 

The drying powder of the oil having been increased by litharge, 
red-lead, or by sulphate of lead, and a judicious selection of copal * 
having been made, it is necessary, according to Booth, to bear in 
mind the following precautions before proceeding to the manufac- 
ture of varnish: — 1. That oil varnish is not a solution, but an in- 
timate mixture of resin in boiled oil and spirit of turpentine. 2. 
That the resin must be completely fused previous to* the addition 
of the boiled or prepared oil. 3. That the oil must be heated from 
250° to 300°. 4. That the spirit of turpentine must be added 
gradually, and in a thin stream, while the mixture of oil and resin 
is still hot. 5. That the varnish be made in dry weather, other- 
wise moisture is abrorbed, and its transparency and drying quality 
impaired. 

The heating vessel must be of copper, with a riveted and not a 
soldered bottom. To promote the admixture of the copal with the 
hot oil, the copal — carefully selected, and of nearly uniform fusi- 
bility — is separately heated with continuous stirriDg over a char- 
coal fire. Good management is required to prevent the copal 
from burning or becoming even high colored. When completely 
fused, the heated oil should be gradually poured in with constant 
stirring. The exact amount of oil required must be determined by 
experiment. If a drop upon a plate, on cooling, assumes such a 



142 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

consistency as to be penetrated by the nail without cracking, the 
mixture is complete ; but if it cracks, more oil must be added. 

The spirit of turpentine previously heated is added in a thin 
stream to the former mixture, care being taken to keep up the 
heat of all the parts. 

lackeh. ' 

This is used for wood or brass work, and is also a varnish. For 
brass, the proportions are half a pound of pale shell lac to one 
gailon of spirit of wine. It is better prepared without the aid of 
heat, by simple and repeated agitation. It should then be left to 
clear itself, and separated from the thicker portions and from all 
impurities by decantation. As it darkens on exposure to light, the 
latter should be excluded. It need scarcely be said that the color 
will be also modified by that of the lac employed. 

1. COPAL VARNISHES. 

1. Oil of turpentine one pint, set the bottle in a water bath, 
and add in small portions at a time, three ounces of powdered 
copal that has been previously melted by a gentle heat, and dropped 
into water ; in a few days decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is 
very gale and durable. Used for pictures, &c. 2. Pale hard copal 
two pounds ; fuse, add hot drying oil one pint, boil as before 
directed, and thin with oil of turpentine three pints, or as much 
as sufficient. Very pale. Dries hard in 12 to 24 hours. 3. Clear- 
est and palest African copal eight pounds ; fuse, add hot and pale 
drying oil two gallons, boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, 
and thin with hot rectified oil of turpentine three gallons, and 
immediately strain into the store can. Very fine. Both the above 
are used for pictures. 4. Coarsely-powdered copal and glass, of 
each four ounces, alcohol of 90 per cent one pint, camphor one- 
half ounce ; heat it in a water-bath so that the bubbles may be 
counted as they rise, observing frequently to stir the mixture ; 
when cold decant the clear. Used for pictures. 5. Copal meited 
and dropped into water three ounces, gum sandarach six ounces, 
mastic and Ohio turpentine of each two and one-half ounces, 
powdered glass four ounces, alcohol of 85 percent, one quart ; dis- 
solve by a gentle heat. Used for metal, chairs, &c. 

All copal varnishes are hard and durable, though less so than 
those made of amber, but they have the advantage oveF the latter 
of being paler. They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished 
metal, wood, and other objects requiring good durable varnish. 

2. COPAL VARNISH. 

Hard copal, 300 parts ! drying linseed or nut oil, from 125 to 
250 parts ; oil of turpentine, 500 ; these three substances are to 
be put into three separate vessels; the copal is to be fused by a 
somewhat sudden application of heat ; the drying oil is to be heat- 
ed to a temperature a little under ebullition, and is to be added 
by small portions at a time to the melted copal. When this com- 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 143 

b< nation is m«de,*and the heat a little abated, the essence of tur- 
pentine, likewise previously heated, is to be introduced by degrees; 
soma of the volatile oil will be dissipated at first, but more being 
added, the union will take place. Great care must be taken to 
prevent the turpentine vapor from catching fire, which might 
occasion serious accidents to the operator. When the varnish is 
made and has cooled down to about 130 degrees of Fah., it may 
bo strained through a filter, to separate the impurities and undis- 
solved copal. Almost all varnish makers think it indispensable to 
combine the drying oil with the copal before adding the oil of 
turpentine, but in this they are mistaken. Boiling oil of turpen- 
tine combines very readily with fused copal ; and, in s.pme cases, 
it would probably be preferable to commence the operation with 
it, adding it in successive small quantities. Indeed, the whitest 
copal varnish can be made only in this way ; for if the drying oil 
has been heated to nearly its boiling point, it becomes colored, 
and darkens the varnish. 

This varnish improves in clearness by keeping. Its consistence 
may be varied by varying the proportions of the ingredients 
within moderate limits. Good varnish, applied in summer, should 
become so dry in twenty-four hours that the dust will not stick to 
it nor receive an impression from the fingers. To render it suffi- 
ciently dry and hard for polishing, it must be subjected for several 
days to the heat of a stove. 

3. COPAL VARNISHES. 

1. Melt in an iron pan at a slow heat, copal gum powdered, 
eight parts, and add balsam copaiva, previously warmed, two 
parts. Then remove from the fire, and add spirits of turpentine, 
also warmed beforehand, ten parts, to give the necessary consist- 
ence. 2. Prepared gum copal ten parts, gum mastic two paits, 
finely powdered, are mixed with white turpentine and boiled lin- 
seed oil, of each one part, at a slow heat, and with spirits of tur- 
pentine twenty parts. 3. Prepared gum-copal ten parts, white 
turpentine two parts, dissolve in spirits of turpentine. 

Gum-copal {^prepared or made more soluble in spirits of tur- 
pentine, by melting the powdered crude gum, afterwards again 
powdering, and allowing to stand for some time loosely covered. 

CABINET VARNISH. 

Copal, fused, fourteen pounds; linseed oil, hot, one gallon; 
turpentine, hot, three gallons. Properly boiled, such a varnish 
will dry in ten minutes. 

TABLE TARNISH. 

Darama resin, one pound ; spirits of turpentine, two pounds ; 
camphor, two hundred grains. Digest the mixture for twenty-four 
hours. The decanted portion is fit for immediate use. 
13 



144 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

COMMON TABLE VARNISH. 

Oil of turpentine, one pound ; bees' wax, two ounces; coloph- 
ony, one drachm. 

COPAL VARNISH FOR INSIDE WORK. 

1. Pounded and oxidixed copal, twenty-four parts; spirit of tur- 
pentine, forty parts ; camphor, one part. — 2. Flexible Copal Var- 
nish. Copal in powder, sixteen parts; camphor, two parts; oil of 
/avender, ninety parts. 

Dissolve the camphor in the oil, heat the latter, and stir in the 
copal in successive portions until complete solution takes place. 
Thin with sufficient turpentine to make it of proper consistence. 

BEST BODY COPAL VARNISH FOR COACH MAKERS, &C. • 

This is intended for the body parts of coaches and other similar 
vehicles, intended for polishing. Fuse eight lbs. of fine African 
gum copal, and two gallons of clarified oil, boil it very slowly for 
four or five hours, until quite stringy, mix with three gallons and 
a half of turpentine • strain off and pour it into a cistern. If this 
is too slow in drying, coach makers, painters and varnish-makers 
have introduced to two pots of the preceding varnish, one made 
as follows- eight lbs. of fine pale gum-anime, two gallons of clari- 
fied oil and three and a half gallons of turpentine. To be boiled 
four hours. 

COPAL POLISH. 

Digest or shake finely powdered gum copal four parts, and gum 
camphor one part, with either to form a semi-fluid mass, and then 
digest with a sufficient quantity of alcohol. 

WHITE SPIRIT VARNISH. 

Sandarach, 25j) parts; mastic, in tears, 64; elemi resin, 32; 
turpentine, 64 ; alcohol of 8£ per cent, 1000 parts, by measure. 
The turpentine is to be added after the resins are dissolved. This 
is a brilliant varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing. 

WHITE HARD SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

1. Gum sandarach five pounds, camphor one ounce, rectified 
spirit 65 over proof) two gallons, washed and dried coarsely- 
pounded glass two pounds ; proceed as in making mastic varnish ; 
when strained add one quart of very pale turpentine varnish. Very 
fine. 2. Picked mastic and coarsely-ground glass, of each, four 
ounces, sandarach and pale clear Venice turpentine, of each three 
ounces, alcohol two pounds; as last. 3. Gum sandarach one 
pound, clear Strasburg turpentine six ounces, rectified spirit (65 
over proof) three pints; dissolve. 4. Mastic in tears two ounces, 
sandarach eight ounces, gum elemi one ounce, Strasburgh or Scio 
turpentine (genuine) four ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) 
one quart. Used on metals, ko Polishes well. 



PRACTICAL KI'CIZTPt^ 145 



WHITE varnish. 

1. Tender copal seven and one-half ounces, camphor one ounce, 
alcohol of 95 per cent, one quart; dissolve, then add mastic two- 
ounces, Venice turpentine one ounce ; dissolve and strain. Ye-j 
white, drying, and capable of being polished when hard. Used for 
toys. 2. Sandarach eight ounces, mastic two ounces, Canada 
b dsam four ounces, alcohol one quart. Used on paper, wood, or 
linen. 

SOFT BRILLIANT VARNISH. 

Sandarach six ounces, elemi (genuine) four ounces, anime one 
ounce, camphor one-half ounce, rectified spirit one quart; as 
before. 

The above spirit varnishes are chiefly applied to objects of the 
toilette, as work-boxes, card- cases, &c, but are also suitable to 
ether articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, that re- 
quire a brilliant and quick-drying varnish. They mostly dry al- 
most as soon as applied, and are usually hard enough to polish in 
24 hours. Spirit varnishes are less durable and more liable to 
crack than oil varnishes. 

BROWN HARD SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

1. Sandarach four ounces' pale seed lac, two ounces, elemi 
(true) one ounce, alcohol one quart ; digest with agitation till dis- 
solved, then add Venice turpentine two ounces. 2. Gum sandar- 
ach three pounds, shellac two pounds, rectified spirit, (65 over 
proof,) two gallons ; dissolve, add turpentine varni&h one quart; 
agitate well and strain. Very fine. 3. Seed-lac and yellow resin, 
of each one and one-half pounds, rectified spirit two gallons. 

* # TO PREPARE A V«* RNISH FOR COATING METALS. 

Digest one part of bru : sed copal in two parts of absolute alcohol; 
but as this varnish dries too quickly it is preferable to take one 
part of copal, one part of oil of rosemary, and two or three parts 
of absolute alcohol. This gives a clear varnish as limpid as water. 
It should be applied hot, and when dry it will be found hard and 
durable. 

TO VARNISH ARTICLES OF IRON AND STEEL. 

Dissolve 10 parts of clear grains of mastic, 5 parts of camphor, 
13 parts of sandarach, and 5 of elemi, in a sufficient quantity of 
alcohol, and apply this varnish without heat. The articles will not 
only be preserved from rust, but the varnish will retain its trans- 
parency and the metallic brilliancy of the articles will not be 
obscured. 

VARNISH FOR IRON WORK. 

Dissolve, in about two lbs. of tar oil, half a pound of asphaltum, 
and a like quantity of pounded resin, mix hot in an iron kettle, 



146 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

care being taken to prevent any contact with the flame. When 
cold the varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out-door 
wood and iron work, not for japanning leather or cloth. 

ELACK VARNISH FOR IRON WORK. 

Asphaltum forty-eight pounds, fuse, add boiled oil ten gallons, 
red lead and litharge, of each seven pounds, dried and powdered 
white copperas three pounds, boil for two hours, then add dark 
gum amber (fused) eight pounds, hot linseed oil two gallons, boil 
1 for two hours longer, or till a little of the mass, when cooled, 
may be rolled into pills, then withdraw the heat, and afterwards 
thin down with oil of turpentine thirty gallons. Used for the iron- 
work of carriages, and other nice purposes. 

BRONZE VARNISH FOR STATUARY. 

Cut best hard soap fifty parts, into fine shavings, dissolve in 
boiling water two parts, to which add the solution of blue vitriol 
fifteen parts, in pure water sixty parts. Wash the copper-soap 
with water, dry it at a very slow heat, and dissolve it in spirits of 
turpentine. 

AMBER VARNISHES. 

1. Amber one pound, pale boiled oil ten ounces, turpentine one 
pint. Render the amber, placed in an iron pot, semi-liquid by 
heat ; then add the oil, mix, remove it from the fire, and when 
cooled a little, stir in the turpentine. 2. To the amber, melted as 
above, add two ounces of sheilac, and proceed as before. 

This varnish is rather dark, but remarkably tough. The first 
form is the best. It is used for the same purposes as copal var- » 
nish, and forms an .excellent article for covering wood, or any 
other substance not of a white or pale color. It dries well, and is 
very hard and durable. 

AMBER VARNISH, BLACK. 

Amber one pound, boiled oil one-half pint, powdered asphaltum 
six ounces, oil of turpentine one pint. Melt the amber, as before 
described, then add the asphaltum, previously mixed with the cold 
oil, and afterwards heated very hot, mix well, remove the vessel 
from the fire, and when cooled a little add the turpentine, also 
made warm. 

Each of the above varnishes should be reduced to a proper con- 
sistence with more turpentine if required. The last forna produces 
the beautiful black varnish used by the coachmakers. Some manu- 
facturers'omit the whole or part' of the asphaltum, and use the 
same quantity of clear black rosin instead, in which case the color 
U brought up by lampblack reduced to an impalpable powder, or 
previously ground very fine with a little boiled oil. The varnish 
made in this way, lacks, however, that richness, brilliancy, and 
depth of blackness imparted by asphaltum. 



PRACTICAL IU£CEtf>¥8. 14 7 



AMBER TARNISHES. 

1. (Pale.) Amber pale and transparent six pounds, fuse, add hot 
clarified linseed oil two gallons, boil till it strings strongly, cool a 
little, and add oil of turpentine four gallons. Pale as copal var- 
nish; soon becomes very ha?d, and is the most durable of oil var- 
nishes ; but requires time before it is fit for polishing. When 
wanted to dry and harden quicker, "drying" oil may be substituted 
for linseed, or " driers" may be add3d during the boiling. 2. 
Amber one pound ; melt, add Scio turpentine one-half pound, 
transparent white resin two ounces, hot linseed oil one pint, and 
afterwards oil of turpentine as much as sufficient ; a3 above. 
Very tough. 3. (Hard.) Melted amber four ounces, hot boiled oil 
oue quart; as before. 4. {Pale.) Very pale and transparent amber 
four ounces, clarified lidseed oil and oil of turpentine, of each one 
pint : a? before 

Amber varnish is suited for all purposes, where a very hard and 
durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is superior to 
copal varnish, and is often mixed wLh the latter to increase its 
hardness and durability. 

BLACK VARNISH. 

Heat to boiling linseed oil varnish ten parts, with burnt umber 
two parts, and powdered asphahuna one part, and when cooled 
dilute wirb spirits of turpentine to the required consistence. 

VARNISH FOR CERTAIN PARTS OF CARRIAGES. 

Sandarach, 190 parts; pale shellac, 95 ; resin, 125; turpentine, 
190 ; alcohol, at 85 per cent, 1000 parts, by measure. 

COACH VARNISH. 

Mix shellac sixteen parts, white turpentine three parts, lamp- 
black sufficient quantity, and digest with alcohol ninety parts, oil 
of lavender four parts. 

MAHOGANY VARNISH. 

Sorted gum-anime eight pounds, clarified oil three gallons, 
litharge and powdered dried sugar of lead, of each one-fourth 
pound ; boil till it strings well, then cool a little, thin with oil of 
turpentine five and one-half gallons, and strain. 

VARNISH FOR CABINET MAKERS. 

Pale shellac, 'ToO parts; mastic, 64; alcohol, of 90 per cent, 1000 
parts by measure. The solution is made in the cold, with the aid 
of frequent stirring. It is always muddy, and is employed without 
being filtered. With the same resins and proof spirit a varnish is 
made for the bookbinders to do over their morocco leather. 



148 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 



CEMENT VARNISH FOR WATER-TIGHT LUTING. 

White turpentine fourteen parts, shellac eighteen parts, resin 
six parts, digest with alcohol eighty parts. 

THE VARNISH OF WATIN FOR GILDED ARTICLES. 

Gum-lac, in grain, 125 parts; gamboge, 125; dragon's blood, 
125 ; annotto, 125 ; saffron, 32. Each resin must be dissolved in 
1000 parts by measure, of alcohol of 90 per cent ; two separate 
tinctures must be made with the dragon's blood and annotto, in 
1000 parts of such alcohol; and a proper proportion of each should 
be added to the varnish, according to the shade of golden color 
wanted. 

CHEAP OAK VARNISH. 

Clear pale resin three and one-half pounds, oil of turpentine one 
gallon; dissolve. It may be colored darker by adding a little fine 
lampblack. 

VARNISH FOR WOOD- WORK. 

Powdered gum sanda-Ptch eight parts, gum mastic two parts, 
seed-lac eight parts, and digest in a warm place for some days 
with alcohol twenty-four parts, and finally, dilute with sufficient 
alcohol to the required consistence. 

DARK VARNISH FOR LIGHT WOOD- WORK. 

Pound up and digest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach thirty- 
two parts, gum mastic (juniper eight parts, gum elemi eight parts, 
dragon's blood four parts, annotto one part, with white turpentine 
sixteen parts, and alcohol two hundred and fift^-six. Dilute with 
alcohol if required. 

VARNISH FOR INSTRUMENTS. 

Digest seed-lac one part, with alcohol seven parts, and filter. 

VARNISH FOR THF WOOD TOYS OF SPA. 

Tender capal, 15 parts; mastic, 12.5 ; Venice turpentine, 6.5 ; 
alcohol, of 95 per cent, 100 parts by measure; water ounces, for 
example, if the other parts be taken in ounces. The alcohol must 
be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a little oil of 
lavender or camphor, if thought fit ; and the solution being passed 
through a linen cloth, the mastic must be intoduced. After it is 
.dissolved, the Venice turpentine, previously melted in a water- 
bath, should be added ; the lower the temperature at which these 
operations are carried on, the more beautiful will the varnish be.^ 
This varnish ought to be very white, very drying, and capable of 
being smoothed with pumice-stone and polished. 

VARNISHES FOR FURNITURE. 

The simplest, and perhaps the best, is the solution of shellac 
only, but many add gums sandarach, mastic, copal, arabic, ben- 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 149 

jamin, &c, from the idea that they contribute to the effect. Gum 
arabic is certainly never required if the solvent be pure, because 
it is insoluble in either rectified spirit or rectified wood naphtha, 
the menstrua employed in dissolving the gums. As spirit is sel- 
dom used on account of its expense, most of the following are 
mentioned as solutions in naphtha, but spirit can be substituted 
when thought proper. 

1. Shellac one and a half pounds, naphtha one gallon ; dissolve, 
and it is ready without filtering. 2. Shellac twelve ounces, copal 
three ounces, (or an equivalent of varnish) ; dissolve in one gallon 
of naphtha. 3. Shellac one and a half pounds, seed-lac and sand- 
arach each founr ounces, mastic two ounces, rectified spirit one 
gallon ; dissolve. 4. Shellac two pounds, benzoin four ounces, 
spirit one gallon. 5. Shellac ten ounces, seed-lac, sandarach, and 
copal varnish of each, six ounces, benzoin three ounces, naphtha 
one gallon. 

To darken polish, benzoin and dragon's-blood are used, turmeric 
and other coloring matters are also added ; and to make it lighter 
it is necessary to use bleached lac, though some endeavor to give 
this effect by adding oxalic acid to the ingredients, it, like gum 
arabic, is insoluble in good spirit or naphtha. For all ordinary 
purposes the first form is best and least troublesome, while its 
abearance is equal to any other. 

TO FRENCH POLISH. 

The wood must be placed level, and sand-papered until it is quite 
smooth, otherwise it will not polish. Then provide a rubber of 
cloth, list, or sponge, wrap it in a soft rag, so as to leave a handle 
at the back for your hand, shake the bottle against the rubber, and 
in the middle of the varnish on the rag place with your finger a 
little raw linseed oil. Now commence rubbing, in small circular 
strokes, and continue until the pores are fiilled, charging the rub- 
ber with varnish and oil as required, until the whole wood has had 
one coat. When dry repeat the process once or twice until the 
surface appears even and fine, between each coat using fine sand- 
paper to smooth down all irregularities. Lastly, use a clean rub- 
ber with a little strong alcohol only, which will remove the oil 
and the cloudiness it causes ; when the work will be complete. 

FURNITURE POLISHES. 

New wood is often French-polished. Or the following may be 
tried : 

Melt three or four pieces of sandarach, each the size of a wal- 
nut, add one pint of boiled oil, and boil together for one hour. 
While cooling add one drachm of venice turpentine, and if to thick 
a little oil of turpentine also. Apply this all over the furniture, 
and after some hours rub it off; rub the furniture daily, without 
applying fresh varnish, except about once in two months. Water 
does not injure this polish, and any stain or scratch may be again 
covered, which cannot be done with French-polish. 



150 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 



FURNITURE GLOSS. 



To give a gloss to household furniture, various compositions are 
used, known as wax, polish, creams, pastes, oils, &c. The follow- 
ing are some of the forms used : 



FURNITURE CREAM. 



Bees- wax one pound, soap four ounces, pearlash two ounces, soft 
water one gallon ; boil together until mixed. 



FURNITURE OILS. 



1. Acetic acid two drachms, oil of lavender one-half drachm, 
rectified spirit one drachm, linseed oil four ounces. 2. Linseed oil 
one pint, alkanet root two ounces ; heat, strain, and add lac var- 
nish one ounce. 3. Linseed oil one pint, rectified spirit two 
ounces, butter of antimony four ounces. 



FURNITURE PASTES. 

1. Bees-wax, spirit of turpentine, and linseed oil, equal parts ; 
melt and cool. 2. Bees-wax four ounces, turpentine ten ounces, 
alkanet root to color ; melt and strain. 8. Bees-wax one pound, 
linseed oil five ounces, alkanet root one-half ounce ; melt, add five 
ounces of turpentine, strain and cool. 4. iBees-w&x four ounces, 
resin one ounce, oil of turpentine two ounces, Venetian red to color. 

ETCHING VARNISHES. 

1. White wax, two ounces ; black and Burgundy pitch, of each 
cue-half ounce ; melt together, add by degrees powdered asphal- 
tum two ounces, and boil till a drop taken out on a plate will break 
when cold by being bent double two or three times between the 
fingers; it must then ba poured into warm water and made into 
small balls for use. 2. {Hard Varnish.) Linseed oil and mastic, of 
each four ounces ; melt together. 3. (Soft Varnish.) Soft linseed 
oil, four ounces ; gun benzoin and white wax, of each one-half 
ounce ; boil to two- thirds. * 

VARNISH FOR ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, ECT. 

Digest gum sandarach twenty parts, gum mastic eight parts, 
camphor one part, with alcohol forty-eight parts. The map or en- 
graving must previously receive one or two coats of gelatine. 

VARNISH TO FIX FNGRAVINGS OR LITHOGRAPHS ON WOOD. 

For fixing engravings or lithographs upon wood, a varnish called 
mordant is usee in France, which differs from others chiefly in con- 
taining more Venice turpentine, to make it sticky; it consists of 
sandarach, 250 parts; mastic in tears, 64 ; rosin, 125; Venice tur- 
pentine, 250 ; alcohol, 1000 parts by measure. 

VARNISHES FOR OIL PAINTINGS AND LITHOGRAPHS. 

1. Dextrine 2 parts, alcohol 1 part, water 6 parts. 2. Varnish 
for drawings and lithographs: dextriae 2 parts, alcohol | part, 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 151 

water 2 parts. These should be prepared previously with two or 
three coats of thin starch or rice boiled and strained through a 
cloth. 

TARNISH FOR OIL PAINTINGS. 

Digest at a slow heat gum sandarach two parts, gum mastic four 
parts, balsam copaiva two parts, white turpentine three parts, with 
spirits of turpentine four parts, alcohol (95 per cent) 50 56 parts. 

BEAUTIFUL TARNISH FOR PAINTINGS AND PICTURES. 

Honey, 1 pint ; the whites of two dozen fresh hen's eggs ; 1 
ounce of good clean isinglass, 20 grains of hydrate of potassium -j 
ounce of chloride of sodium ; mix together over a gentle heat of 
80 or 90 degrees Fah. ; be careful not to let the mixture remain 
long enough to coagulate the albumen of the eggs ; stir the mix- 
ture thoroughly then bottle. It is to be applied as follows: one 
table spoonful of the varnish added to half a table spoonful of 
good oil of turpentine, then spread on the picture as soon as mixed. 

MILK OF WAX. 

Milk of wax is a valuable varnish, which may be prepared as fol- 
lows : — Melt in a porcelain capsule a certain quantity of white wax, 
and add to it, while in fusion, an equal quantity of spirit. of wine, 
of sp. grav. 0-830 ; stir the mixture, and pour it upon a large 
porphyry slab. The granular mass is to be converted into a paste 
by the muller, with the addition, from time to time, of a little al- 
cohol ; and as soon as it appears to be smooth and homogeneous, 
water is to be introduced in small quantities successively, to the 
amount of four times the weight of the wax. This emulsion is to 
be then passed through canvas, in order to separate such particles 
as may be imperfectly incorporated. The milk of wax, thus pre- 
pared, may be spread with a smooth l)rush upon the surface of a 
painting, allowed to dry, and then fused by passing a hot iron 
(salamander) over its surface. When cold, it is to be rubbed with 
a linen cloth to bring out the luster. It is to the unchangeable 
quality of an encaustic of this nature, that the ancient paintings 
upon the walls of Herculaneum and Pompeii owe their freshness 
at the present day. 

CRYSTAL TARNISHES. 

1. Genuine pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine, 
equal parts ; mix, place the bottle in warm water, agitate well, set 
it aside, in a moderately warm place, and in a week pour off the 
clear. Used for maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of pa- 
per, and also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings. 
2. Mastic three ounces, alcohol one pint ; dissolve. Used to fix 
pencil drawings. 

ITALIAN TARNISHES. 

1. Boil Scio turpentine till brittle, powder, and dissolve in oil of 
turpentine. 2. Canada balsam and clear white resin, of each six 
ounces, oil of turpentine one quart; dissolve. Used for prints, &c. 



152 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

MZE, OR VARNISH, FOR PRINTERS, ETC. 

Best pale glue and white curd soap, of each 4 ounces; hot 
water 3 pints; dissolve, then add powdered alum 2 ounces. Used 
to size prints and pictures before coloring them. 

MASTIC VARNISHES. 

1. (Fine.) Very pale and picked gum mastic five pounds, glass 
pounded as small as barley, and well washed and dried two and 
one-half pounds, rectified turpentine two gallons ; put them into a 
clean four gallon stone or tin bottle, bung down securely, and keep 
rolling it backwards and forwards pretty smartly on a counter or 
any other solid place for at least four hours; when, if the gum is 
all dissolved, the varnish may be decanted, strained through mus- 
lin into another bottle, and allowed to settle. It should be kept 
for six or nine months before use, as it thereby gets both tougher 
and clearer. 2. (Second Quality.) Mastic eight pounds, turpentine 
four gallons ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and add pale turpentine 
varnish one-half gallon. 3. Gum mastic six ounces, oil of turpen- 
tine one quart ; dissolve. ■ 

Mastic varnish is used for pictures, &c. ; when good, it is tough, 
hard, brilliant, and colorless. Should it get " chilled" one pound 
of -well-washed silicious sand should be made moderately hot, and 
added to each gallon, which must then be well agitated for five 
minutes, and afterwards allowed to settle. 

INDIA-RUBBER VARNISHES. 

1. Cut up one pound of India rubber into small pieces rnd dif- 
fuse in half a pound of sulphuric ether, which is done by digest- 
ing in a glass flask on a sand bath. Then add one pound pale lin- 
seed oil varnish, previously heated,, and after settling, one pound 
of oil of turpentine, also heated beforehand. Filter, while yet 
warm, into bottles. Dries slowly. 

2. Two ounces India rubber finely divided and digested in the 
same way, with a quarter of a pound of camphene, and half an 
ounce of naphtha or benzole. When dissolve add one ounce of 
copal varnish, which renders it more durable. Principally for gild- 
ing. 

3. In a wide mouthed glass bottle, digest two ounces of India ' 
rubber in fine shavings, with one pound of oil of turpentine,, dur- 
ing two days, without shaking, then stir up with a wooded spatula. 
Add another pound of oil of turpentine, and digest, with frequent 
agitation, until all is dissolved. Then mix a pound and a half of 
this solution with two pounds of very white copal-oil varnish, and 
a pound and a half of well boiled linseed oil, shake and digest in 
a sand bath, until they have united into a good varnish. — For mor- 
occo leather. 

4. Four ounces India rubber in fine shavings are dissolved in a 
covered jar by means of a sand bath, in two pounds of crude ben- 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 153 

zole, and $hen mixed with four pounds of hot linseed oil varnish, 
and a half pound of oil of turpentine. Dries very well. 

5. Flexible Varnish. — Melt one pound of rosin, and add gradu- 
ally half a pound of India rubber in very fine shavings, and stir 
until cold. Then heat again, slowly, add one pound of linseed oil 
varnish, heated, and filter. 

6. Another. — Dissolve one pound of gum dammar, and a half 
pound of India rubber, in very small pieces, in one pound of oil of 
turpentine, by means of a water bath. Add one pound of hot oil 
varnish and filter. 

7. India rubber in small pieces, washed and dried, are fused for 
three hours in a close vessel, on a gradually heated sand bath. On 
removing from the .sand bath, open the vessel and stir for ten 
minutes, then close again, and repeat the fusion on the following 
day, until small globules appear on the surface. Strain through'a 
wire sieve, 

8. Varnish for Water proof Goods. — Let a quarter of a pound of 
India rubber, in small pieces, soften in a half pound of oil of tur- 
pentine, then add Wo pounds of boiled oil, and let the whole boil 
for two hours over a slow coal fire. When dissolved, add again six 
pounds of boiled linseed oil and one pound of litharge, and boil 
until an even liquid is obtained. It is applied warm. 

9. Gutia Fercha Varnish. — Clean a quarter of a pound of Gutta 
Pereha in warm water from adhering impurities, dry well, dissolve 
in one pound of rectified rosin oil, and add two pounds of linseed 
oil varnish, boiling hot. Very suitable to prevent metals from 
oxidation. 

BLACK VARNISH FOR HARNESS, 

Digest shellac twelve parts, white turpentine five parts, gum 
sandarach two parts, lampblack one part, with spirits of turpen- 
tine four parts, alcohol ninety-six parts. 

BOILED OIL OR LINSEED-OIL VARNISH. 

Boil linseed oil sixty parts, with litharge two parts, and white 
vitriol one part, each finely powdered, until all water is evaporated. 
Then set by. Or, rub up- borate of manganese four parts, with 
some of the oil, then ad'd linseed oil three thousand parts, and 
heat to boiling. 

DAMMAR VARNISH. 

Gum dammar ten parts, gum sandarach five parts, gum mastic 
one part, digest at a low heat, occasionally shaking, with spirits of 
turpentine twenty parts. Finally, add more spirits of turpentine 
to give the consistence of syrup. 

COMMON VARNISH. 

Digest shellac one part, with alcohol seven or eight parts. 

WATERPROOF VARNISHES. 

Take one pound of flowers of sulphur and one gallon of linseed 
oil, and boil them together until they are thoroughly combined. 



154 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

This forms a good varnish for waterproof textile fabrics.. Another 
is made with four pounds oxyde of lead, two pounds of lampblack, 
five ounces of sulphur, and ten pounds of India rubber dissolved 
in turpentine. These substances, in such proportions, are boiled 
together until they are thoroughly combined. Coloring matters 
may be mixed with them. Twilled cotton may be rendered water- 
proof by the application of the oil sulphur varnish. It should be 
applied at two or three different times, and dried after each opera- 
tion. 

VARNISHES FOR BALLOONS, GAS BAGS, ETC. 

1. Jndia rubber in shavings one ounce ; mineral naphtha two 
lbs. ; digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel till dissolved, and 
strain. 2. Digest one pound of Indian rubber, cut small, in six 
pounds of oil of turpentine for 7 days, in a warm place. Put the 
mixture in a water bath, heat until thoroughly mixed, add one gallon 
of warm boiled drying oil, mix, and strain when cold. 3. Linseed 
oil one gallon ; dried white copperas and sugar of lead, each three * 
ounces; litharge eight ounces ; boil with constant agitation till it 
strings well, then cool slowly and decant the clear. If too thick, 
thin it with quicker drying linseed oil. 

GOLD VARNISH. 

Digest shellace sixteen parts, gum sandarach, mastic, of each 
three parts, crocus one part, gum gamboge two parts, all bruised, 
with alcohol one hundred forty-four parts. Or, digest seed-lec, 
sandarach, mastic, of each eight parts, gamboge two parts, drag- 
on's blood one part, white turpentine six parts, turmeric four parts, 
bruised, with alcohol one hundred twenty parts. 

WAINSCOT VARNISH FOR HOUSE PAINTING AND JAPANNING. 

Anime eight pounds; clarified linseed oil three gallons; litharge 
one-fourth pound ; acetate of lead one-half pound ; sulphate of cop- 
per one-fourth pound. 

All these materials must be carefully but thoroughly boiled to- 
gether untill the mixture becomes quite stringy, and then five and 
a half gallons of heated turpentine stirred in. It can be easily 
deepened in color by the addition of a little gold-size. 

IRON WORK BLACK. 

Put 48 Bbs. asphaltum Into an iron pot, and boil for 4 hours ; 
during the first 2 hours, introduce 7 Bbs. litharge, 3 K>s. dried cop- 
peras, and 10 galls, boiled; add l-8th lb. run of dark gum, with 2 
galls, hot oil. After pouring the oil and gum, continue the boiling 
2 hours, or until it will roll into hard pills, like Japan. When cool, 
thin it off with 30 galls, turpentine, or until it is of proper con- 
sistence. 

BLACK JAPAN VARNISH. 

Bitumen, 2 ounces; lampblack, 1 ounce; Turkey umber, $ 
ounce ; acetate of lead \ ounc$; Venice turpentine, \ ounce; boil- 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 155 

ed oil, 12*ounces. Melt the turpentine and oil together, carefully 
stiring in the rest of the ingredients, previously powdered. Sim- 
met all together for ten minutes. 

Tinware is japanned with Colored Copal Yarnish, and then bak- 
ed in an oven until the varnish becomes perfectly dry and hard. 
Yarnishes may be colored with any of the pigments used in oil 
painting. 

LEATHER VARNISH. 

Durable leather varnish is composed of boiled linseed oil, in 
which a drier, such as litharge, has been boiled. It is colored with 
lampblack. This varnish, is used for making enamelled leather. 
Common leather varnish, which is used as a substitute for black- 
ing, is made of thin lac-varnish colored with ivory black. 

VARNISH FOR SMOOTH MOULDING PATTERNS. 

Alcohol, 1 gall.; Shell Lac, 1 lb.; Lamp or Ivory Black, sufficient 
to color it. 

FINE BLACK VARNISH FOR COACHES. 

Melt in an Iron pot, Amber, 32 ozs.; Resin, 6 ozs.; Asphaltum, 
6 ozs.; Drying Linseed Oil, 1 pt; when partly cooled add Oil of 
Turpentine, warmed 1 pt. 



LACKERS. 



GOLD LACKER. 



Put into a clean four gallon tin, one pound of ground turmeric, 
one and a half ounces of gamboge, three and a half pounds of pow- 
dered gum sandarach, three quarters of a pound of shellac, and two 
gallons of spirits of wine. When shaken, dissolved, and strained, 
add one pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed. 

RED SPIRIT LACKER. 

Made exactly as the gold lacker with these ingredients ; two 
gallons of spirits of wine, one pouud of dragon's blood, three 
pounds of Spanish annotto, three and a quarter pounds of gum 
sandarach, and two pints of turpentine. 

PALE BRASS LACKER. 

Two galls, spirits of wine ; 3 oz. Cape aloes; cut small 1 Tb. rme 
pale shellac ; 1 oz. gamboge, cut small ; no turpentine ; — varnish 
made exactly as before. But observe, that those who make lack- 
ers frequently want some paler and some darker ; and sometimes 
incliniug more to the particular tint of certain of the component 
ingredients. Therefore, if a 4 oz. phial of a strong solution of 
each ingredient be prepared, a lacker of any tint can be produced 
at any time. 
14 



156 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 



LACKER FOR TIN. 

Any good lacker laid upon tin gives it the appearance of copper 
or brass. It is made by coloring lac-varnish with turmeric to im- 
part the color of brass to it, and with annotto, to give it the color 
of copper. If a tin plate is dipped into molten brass, the latter 
metal will adhere to it in a coat. 

LACKER TARNISH. 

A good lacker is made by coloring lac-varnish with turmeric 
and annotto. Add as much of these two coloring substances to 
the varnish as will give it the proper color ; then squeeze the var- 
nish through a cotton cloth, when it forms lacker. 

DEEP GOLD COLORED LACKER. 

Seed-lac three ounces, turmeric one ounce, dragon's blood one- 
fourth ounce, alcohol one pint ; digest for a week, frequently shak- 
ing, decant and filter. 

. Lackers are used upon polished metals and wood to impart the 
appearance of gold. If yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, 
saffron, or gamboge ; for red, use annotto, or dragon's blood, to 
color. Turmeric, gamboge, and dragon's blood, generally afford a 
eufficient range of colors. 

LACKERS FOR PICTURES, METAL, WOOD OR LEATHER. 

1. Seed-lac eight ounces, alcohol one quart ; digest in a close 
vessel in a warm situation for three or four days, then decant and 
strain. 2. Substitute lac bleached by chlorine for seed-lac. Both 
are very tough, hard, and durable ; the last almost colorless. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING LACKER. 

Mix the ingredients and let the vessel containing them stand in 
the sun, or in a place slightly warmed three or four days, shaking 
it frequently till the gum is dissolved, after which let it settle from 
twenty-four to forty-eight hours, when the clear liquor may he 
poured off for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes used in making 
lacker, to carry down the impurities. 

LACKER FOR DIPPED BRASS. 

Alcohol, proof specific gravity not less than 95-100ths, 2 galls.; 
eeed-lac, 1 lb.; gum copal, 1 oz.; English saffron, 1 oz.; annotto, 
I oz. 

LACKER FOR BRONZED BRASS. 

To one pint of the above lacker, add, gamboge, 1 oz.; and after 
mixing it add an equal quantity of the first lacker. 

DEEP GOLD COLORED LACKER. 

Best alcohol, 40 ozs. ; Spanish annotto, 8 grs. ; turmeric, 2 drs. ; 
ehel-lac i oz. ; red ganders, 12 grs. ; when dissolved add spirits of 
turpentine, 30 drops. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 157 

GOLD COLORED LACKER, FOR BRASS NOT DIPPED. 

Alcohol 4 galls. ; turmeric, 3 lbs. ; gamboge, 3 ozs. ; gum san- 
darach, 7 lbs. ; shellac, 1 j- lb. ; turpentine varnish, 1 pint. 

GOLD COLORED LACEER FOR DIPPED BRASS. 

Alcohol, 36 ozs. ; seed-lac, 6 ozs. ; amber, 2 ozs. ; gum gutta, 

2 ozs. ; red sandal wood, 24 grs. ; dragon's blood, 60 grs. ; Oriental 
saffron, 36 grs, ; Pulverized glass, 4 ozs. 

GOOD LACKER FOR BRASS. 

Seed-lac, 6 czs. ; amber or copal, 2 ozs. ; best alcohol, 4 galls. ; 
pulverized glass, 4 ozs. ; dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; extract of red 
sandal wood obtained by water, 30 grs. 

LACKER FOR DIPPED BRASS. 

Alcohol 12 galls. ; seed-lac, 9 lbs. ; turmeric, 1 lb. to a gallon of 
the above mixture , Spanish saffron, 4 ozs. 
The saffron is to be added for bronze work. 

GOOD LACKER. 

Alcohol, 8 ozs.; gamboge, 1 oz.; shell lac, 3 ozs.; annotto, 1 oz.; 
solution of 3 ozs.; of seed lac in 1 pint of alcohol ; when dissolved 
add i oz. venice turpentine, J-oz dragon's blood, will make it dark; 
keep it in a warm place four or five days. 

PALE LACKER FOR TIN PLATE. 

Best alcohol, 8 ozs.; turmeric, 4 drs.; hay saffron, 2 scs.; dragon 
blood, scs.; red Sanders, 1 scs.; shell lac, 1 oz.; gum sanderach, 2 
drs.; gum mastic, 2 drs.; Canada balsam, 2 drs.; when dissolved add 
spirits of turpentine, 80 drops. 

RED LACKER FOR BRASS. 

Alcohol, 8 galls.; dragon's blood, 4 lbs.; Spanish annotto, 12 lbs.; 
gum sanderach, 13 lbs.; turpentine, 1 gall. 

PALE LACKER FOR BRASS. 

Alcohol, 2 galls/, cape aloes cut small, 3 ozs.; pale shellac, 1 
lb.; gamboge, 1 oz. 

REST LACKER FOR BRASS. 

Alcohol, 4 galls., shell lac, 2 lbs.; amber gum, 1 lb.;, copal, 20 
ozs.; seed lac, 3 lbs.; saffron, to color; pulverized glass, 8 ozs. 

COLOR FOR LACKER. 

Alcohol, 1 qt.; annotto, 4 ozs. 

LACKER FOR PILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Alcohol, 80 ozs.; gum gutta, 3 ozs.; gum sandarac, 8 ozs.; gum 
elemi, 8 ozs.; dragon's blood, 4 ozs; seed lac, 4 ozs.; terra merita, 

3 ozs.; saffron, 8 grs.; pulverized glass, 12 ozs. 



158 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 



MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 



' ARMENIAN OR DIAMOND CEMENT. * 

This article, so much esteemed for uniting pieces of broken 
glass, for repairing precious stones, and for cementing them to 
watch cases >and other ornaments, is made by soaking isinglass in 
water until it becoms quite soft, and then mixing it with spirit in 
which a little gum mastic and ammoniacum have been dissolved. 

The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Armenians, have a 
singular method of ornamenting watch cases, &c, with diamonds 
and other precious stones, by simply glueing or- cementing them 
on. The stone is set in silver or gold, and the lower part of the 
metal made flat, or to correspond with the part to which it is to 
. be fixed ; it is then warmed gently, and has the glue applied, 
which is so very strong that the parts so cemented never separate ; 
this glue, which will strongly unite bits of glass, and even polished 
steel, and may be applied to a variety of useful purposes, is thus 
made in Turkey: — Dissolve five or six bits of gum mastic, each 
the size of a large pea, in as much spirits of wine as will suffice to 
render it liquid ; and in another vessel, dissolve as much isinglass, 
previously a little softened in water, (though none of the water 
must be used,) in French brandy or good rum, as will make a two- 
ounce vial of very strong glue, adding two small bits of gum 
albanum, or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed or ground till 
they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a sufficient' heat. 
Keep the glue in a vial closely stopped, and when it is to be used, 
set the vial in boiling water. Some persons have sold a composi- 
tion under the name of Armenian cement, in England ; but this 
composition is badly made ; it is much too thin, and the quantity 
of mastic is much too small. 

The following are good proportions : isinglass, soaked in water 
and dissolved in spirit, two ounces, (thick) ; dissolve in this ten 
giains of very pale gum ammoniac, (in tears,) by rubbing them to- 
gether ; then add six large tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the 
least possible quantity of rectified spirit. 

Isinglass, dissolved in proof spirit, as above, three ounces ; bot- 
toms of mastic varnish (thick but clear) one and a half ounces ; 
mix well. 

When carefully made this cement resists moisture, and dries col- 
orless. As usually met with, it is not only of very bad quality, but 
sold at exorbitant prices. 

CEMENT FOR MENDING EARTHERN AND GLASS WARE. 

1. Heat the article to be mended, a little above boiling water 
heat, then apply a thin coating of gum shellac, on both surfaces 
of the broken vessel, and when cold it will be as strong as it was 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 159 

originally. 2. Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol, apply the solution, 
and bind the parts firmly together until the cement is perfectly dry. 

CEMENT FOR STONEWARE. 

Another cement in which an analogous substance, the curd or 
caseum of milk is employed, is made by boiling slices of skim-milk 
cheese into a gluey consistence in a great quantity of water, and 
then incorporating it with quicklime on a slab with a muller, or in 
a marble mortar. When this compound is applied warm to brok- 
en edges of stoneware, it unites them very firmly after it is cold. 

IRON-RUST CEMENT. 

The iron-rust cement is made of from fifty to one hundred parts 
of iron borings, pounded and sifted, mixed with one part of sal- 
ammoniac, and when it is to be applied moistened with as much 
water as will give it a pasty consistency. Formerly flowers of sul- 
phur were used, and much more sal-ammoniac in making this ce- 
ment, but with decided disadvantage, as the union is effected by 
oxidizment, consequent expansion and solidification of the iron 
powder, and any hetrogeneous matter obstructs the effect. The 
best proportion of sal-ammoniac is, I believe, one per cent of the 
iron borings. Another composition of the same kind is made by 
mixing four parts of fine borings or filings of iron, two parts of 
potter's clay, and one part of pounded potsherds, and making them 
into a paste with salt and water. When this cement is allowed to 
concrete slowly on iron joints, it becomes very hard. 

FOR MAKING ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF. 

For making architectural ornaments in relief, a moulding com- 
position is formed of chalk, glue, and paper paste. Even statues 
have been made with it, the paper aiding the cohesion of the mass. 



Mastics of a resinous or bituminous nature, which must be 
softened or fused by heat, are the following: — 

VARLEY'S MASTIC. 

Mr. S. Varleys's consists of sixteen parts of whiting sifted and 
thoroughly dried by a red heat, adding when cold a melted mix- 
ture of sixteen parts of black rosin and one of bees'-wax, and stir- 
ring well during the cooling. 

ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS CEMENT. 

Electrical and chemical apparatus cement consists of 5 lbs. of 
rosin, 1 of bees'-wax, 1 of red ochre, and two table-spoonsful of 
Paris plaster, all melted together. A cheaper one for cementing 
voltaic plates into wooden troughs is made with 6 pounds of rosin, 
1 pound of red ochre ^ of a pound of plaster of Paris, and J of a 



160 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

a pound of linseed oil. The ochre and the plaster of Paris should 
be calcined beforehand, aud added to the other ingredients in their 
melted state. The thinner stratum of cement that is interposed, 
the stronger, generally speaking, is the junction. 

CEMENT FOR IRON TUBES, BOILERS, ETC. 

Finely powdered iron sixty-six parts, sal-ammoniac one part, 
water a sufficient quantity to form into paste. 

CEMENT FOR IYORY, MOTHER OF PEARL, ETC. 

Dissolve one part of isinglass and two of white glue in thirty of 
water, strain and evaporate to six parts. Add one-thirtieth part 
of gum mastic, dissolved in half a part of alcohol, and one part of 
white zinc. When required for use, warm and shake up. 

CEMENT FOR HOLES IN CASTINGS. 

The best cement for this purpose is made by mixing one part of 
sulphur in powder, two parts of sal-ammoniac, and eighty parts of 
clean powdered iron turnings Sufficient water must be added to 
make it into a thick paste, which should be pressed into the holes 
or seams which are to be filled up. The ingredients composing 
this cement should be kept separate, and not mixed until required 
for use. It is to be applied cold, and the casting should not be 
used for two or three days afterwards. 

CEMENT FOR COPPERSMITHS AND ENGINEERS. 

Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed together into a putty are 
often used by coppersmiths and engineers, to secure joints. The 
washers of leather or cloth are smeared with this mixture in a pas- 
ty state. 

A CHEAP CEMENT. 

Melted brimstone, either alone, or mixed with rosin and brick 
dust, forms a tolerably good and very cheap cement. 

plumber's cement. 

Plumber's cement consists of black rosin one part, brick dust 
two parts, well incorporated by a melting heat. 

CEMENT FOR BOTTLE-CORKS. 

The bitumious or black cement for bottle-corks consists of pitch 
hardened by the addition of rosin and brick-dust. 

CHINA CEMENT. 

Take the curd of milk, dried and powdered, ten ounces ; quick- 
lime one ounce ; camphor two drachms. Mix, and keep in closely 
stopped bottles. When used, a portion is to be mixed with a little 
water into a paste, to be applied quickly. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 16l 



CEMENT FOR LEATHER. 

A mixture of India-rubber and shell-lac varnish makes a very 
adhesive leather cement. A strong solution of common isinglass, 
with a little diluted alcohol added to it, makes an excellent cement 
for leather. 

MARBLE CEMENT. 

Take plaster of paris, and soak it in a saturated solution of 
alum, then bake the two in an oven, the same as gypsum is baked 
to make it plaster of paris ; after which they are ground to pow- 
der. It is then used as wanted, being mixed up with water like 
plaster and applied. It sets into a very hard composition capable 
of taking a very high polish. It may be mixed with various 
coloring minerals to produce a cement of any color capable of 
imitating marble. 

A GOOD CEMENT. 

Shellac dissolved in alcohel, or in a solution of borax, forms a 

pretty good cement. 

CEMENT FOR MARBLE WORKERS AND COPPERSMITHS. 

White of egg alone, or mixed with finely sifted quicklime, will 
answer for uniting objects which are not exposed to moisture. 
The latter combination is very strong, and is much employed for 
joining pieces of spar and marble ornaments. A similar composi- 
tion is used by coppersmiths to secure the edges a'nd rivets of 
boilers ; only bullock's blood is the albuminous matter used instead 
of white of egg. 

TRANSPARENT CEMENT FOR GLASS. 

Dissolve one part of India-rubber in 64 of chloroform, then add 
gum, mastic in powder 14 to 24 parts, and digest for two days with 
frequent shaking. Apply with a camels-hair brush. 

CEMENT TO MEND IRON POTS AND PANS. 

Take two parts of sulphur, and one part, by weight, of* fine black 
lead ; put the sulphur in an old iron pan, holding it over the fire 
until it begins to melt, then add the lead ; stir well until all is 
mixed and melted; then pour out on an iron plate, or smooth 
stone. When cool, break into small pieces. A sufficient quantity 
of this compound being placed upon the crack of the iron pot to 
be mended, can be soldered by a hot iron in the same way a tin- 
smith solders his sheets. If there is a small hole in the pot, drive 
a copper rivet in it and then solder over it with this cement. 

CEMENT TO RENDER CISTERNS AND CASKS WATER TIGHT. 

An excellent cement forresisting moisture is made by incorporat- 
ing thoroughtly eight parts of melted glue, of the consistence used 
by carpenters, with four parts of linseed oil, boiled into varnish 
with litharge. This cement hardens is about forty-eight hours, 



162 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

and renders the joints of wooden cisterns and casks air and water 
tight. A compound of glue with one-fourth its weight of Venice 
turpentine, made as above, serves to cement glass, metal and wood, 
to one another. Fresh-made cheese curd and old skim-milk cheese, 
- boiled in water to a slimy consistence, dissolved in a solution of 
bicarbonate of potash are said to form a good cement for glass and 
porcelain. The gluten of wheat, well prepared, is also a good 
cement. White of eggs, with flour and water well-mixed, and 
smeared over linen cloth, forms a ready lute for steam joints in 
small apparatus. 

CEMENT FOB REPAIRING FRACTURED BODIES OF ALL KINDS. 

White lead ground upon a slab with linseed oil varnish, and kept 
out of contact of air, affords a cement capable of repairing 
fractured bodies of all kinds. It requires a few weeks to harden. 
When stone or iron are to be cemented together, a compound of 
equal parts of sulphur with pitch answers very well. 

CEMENT FOR CRACKS IN WOOD. 

Make a paste of slacked lime one part, rye-meal two parts, with 
a sufficient quantity of linseed oil. Or, dissolve one part of glue 
in sixteen parts of water, and when almost cool stir in sawdust 
and prepared chalk a sufficient quantity. Or, oil-varnish thickened 
with a mixture of equal parts of white-lead, red-lead, litharge, and 
chalk. 

CEMENT FOR JOINING METALS AND WOOD. 

Melt rosin and stir in calcined plaster until reduced to a paste, 
to which add boiled oil a sufficient quantity, to bring it to the con- 
sistence of honey; apply warm. Or, melt rosin 180 parts, and stir 
in burnt umber 30, calcined plaster 15, and boiled oil 8 parts. 

GAS FITTERS' CEMENT. 

Mix together, resin four and one-half parts, wax one part, and 
Venetian red three parts. 

IMPERVIOUS CEMEMT FOR APPARATUS, CORKS, ETC. 

Zinc-white rubbed up with copal varnish to fill up the inden- 
tures ; when dry, to be covered with the same mass, somewhat 
thinner, and lastly with copal varnish alone. 

CEMENT FOR FASTENING BRASS TO GLASS VESSELS. 

Melt rosin 150 parts, wax 50, and add burnt ochre 30, and cal- 
cined plaster 2 parts. Apply warm. 

CEMENT FOR FASTENING BLADES, FILES, ETC 

Shellac two parts, prepared chalk one, powdered and mixed. 
The opening for the blade is filled with this powder, the lower end 
of the iron heated and pressed in. 

HYDRAULIC CEMENT PAINT. 

If hydraulic cement be mixed with oil, it forms a first-rate anti- 
combustible and excellent water-proof paint for roofs of buildings, 
outhouses, Willis, &c. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 163 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 

PAINT FOR COATING WIRE WORK. 

Boil good linseed oil with as much litharge as will make it of the 
consistency to be laid on with the brush ; add lampblack af the 
rate of one part to every ten, by weight of the litharge ; boil three 
hours over a gentle fire. The first coat should be thinner than the 
following coats. 

RAZOR PASTE. 

1. Levigated oxide of tin (prepared putty powder) 1 oz. ; pow- 
dered oxalic acid 1-4 oz. ; powdered gum 20 grs. ; make it into a 
stiff paste with water, and evenly and thinly spread it over the 
strop. With very little friction, this paste gives a fine edge to the 
razor, and its efficiency is still further increased by moistening it. 

2. Emery reduced to an impalpable powder 2 parts ; spermaceti 
ointment 1 part ; mix together, and rub it over the strop. 

3. Jewellers' rouge, blacklead, and suet, equal parts ; mix. 

CUTTING GLASS. 

To cut bottles, shades, or other glass vessels neatly, heat a rod 
of iron to redness, and having filled your vessal the exact height 
you wish it to be cut, with oil of any kind, you proceed very grad- 
ually to dip the red hot iron into the oil, which, heating all along 
the surface, suddenly the glass chips and cracks right round, when 
you can lift off the upper portion clean by the surface of the oil. 

^ PREPARED LIQUID GLUE. 

Take of best white glue 16 ounces; white lead, dry, 4 ounces; 
rain water 2 pints ; alcohol 4 ounces. With constant stirring dis- 
solve the glue and lead in the water by means of a water-bath. 
Add the alcohol, and continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly 
pour into bottles while it is hot. 

LIQUID GLUES. 

Dissolve 33 parts of best ( Buffalo ) glue on the steam bath in a* 
porcelain vessel, in 36 parts of water. Then add gradually stirring 
constantly, 3 parts of aqua fortis, or as much as is suffcient to pre- 
vent the glue from hardening when cool. Or dissolve one part of 
powdered alum in 120 of water, add 120 parts of glue, 10 of acetic 
acid and 40 of alcohol, and digest. 

MARINE GLUE. 

Dissolve 4 parts of india rubber in 34 parts of coal tar naphtha 
— aiding the solution with heat and agitation, add to it 64 parts of 
powdered shellac, which must be heated in the mixture, till the 
whole is dissolved. While the mixture is hot it is poured upon 
metal plates in sheets like leather. When required for use, it is 



164 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

heated in a pot, till soft, and then applied with a brush to the sur- 
faces to be joined. Two pieces of wood joined with this glue can 
scarcely be sundered. 

DEXTRINE, OR BRITISH GUM. 

Dry potato-starch heated from 300 Q to 600 Q until it becomes 
brown, soluble in cold water, and ceases to turn blue with iodine. 
Used by calico printers and others, instead of gum arabic. 

A LIQUID GLUE THAT KEEPS FOR YEARS. 

Dissolve 2 pounds good glue in 2 1-9 pints hot water ; add grad- 
ually, 7 oz. nitric acid, and mix well. 

SEALING-WAX FOR FRUIT-CANS. 

Beeswax, \ oz. ; English vermillion, \\ ozs. ; gum shellac, 2£ ozs. ; 
rosin, 8 ozs. Take some cheap iron vessel that you can always keep 
for the purpose, and put in the rosin and melt it, and stir in the 
vermillion. Then add the shellac, slowly, and stir that in, and 
afterward the beeswax. When wanted for use at any after time, 
set it upon a slow fire and melt it so you can dip bottle-nozzles, 
in. For any purpose, such as an application to trees, where you 
want it tougher than the above preparation will make it, add a 
little more beeswax, and leave out the vermillion. 

If the vermillion is left out in the above, the wax will be all the 
better for it, as it is merely used for coloring purposes. 

FUSIBLE METAL. 

1. Bismuth 8 parts ; lead 5 parts; tin 3 parts; melt together 
Melts below 212 degrees Fahr. 2. Bismuth 2 parts; lead 5 parts; 
tin 3 parts. Melts in boiling water. 3. Lead 3 parts; tin 2 parts; 
bismuth 5 parts ; mix. Melts at 197 deg. Fahr. 

Remarks. The above are used to make toy-spoons, to surprise 
children by their melting in hot liquors ; and to form pencils for 
writing on asses* skin, or paper prepared by rubbing burnt harts- 
horn into it. 

METALLIC CEMENT. 

M. Greshiem states that an alloy of copper and mercury, pre- 
pared as follows, is capable of attaching itself firmly to the surfaces 
of metal, glass, and porcelain. From twenty to thirty parts of 
finely divided copper, obtained by the reduction of oxide of copper 
-wih hydrogen, or by precipitation from solution of its sulphate 
with zinc, are made into a paste with oil of vitrol and seventy parts 
of morcury added, the whole being well triturated. When the 
amalgamation is complete, the acid is removed by washing with 
boiling water, and the compound allowed to cool. In ten or twelve 
hours, it becomes sufficiently hard to receive a brilliant polish, and 
to scratch the surface of tin or gold. By heat it assumes the con- 
sistence of wax ; and, as it does not contract on cooling, M. Gresh- 
iem recommends its use by dentists for stopping teeth. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 165 

ARTIFICIAL GOLD. 

This is a new metallic alloy which is now very extensively used 
in France as a substitute for gold. Pure copper 100 parts, zinc, or 
preferably tin 17 parts, magnesia 6 parts, sal ammoniac 3-6 parts, 
quick lime 1-8 parts, tartar of commerce 9 parts, are mixed as fol- 
lows: The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sai ammoniac, 
lime, and tartar, are then added, separately and by degrees, in the 
form of powder ; the whole is now briskly stirred for about half an 
hour, so as to mix thoroughly ; and then the zinc is added in small 
grains by throwing it on the surface and stirring till it is entirely 
fused ; the crucible is then covered and the fusion maintained for 
about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed and the alloy is ■ 
ready for casting. 

It has a fine grain, is malleable and takes a splendid polish. It 
does not corrode readily, and for many purposes is an excellent 
substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restor- 
ed by a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc 
the alloy will be more brilliant. It is very much used in France, 
and must ultimately attain equal popularity here.. 

OR-MOLU. 

The or-mclu of the brass founder, popularly known as an imita- 
tion of red gold, is extensively used by the French workmen in 
metals. It is generally found in combination with grate and stove 
work. It is composed of a greater portion of copper and less zinc 
than ordinary brass, is cleaned readily by means of acid, and is bur- 
nished with facility. To give this material the rich appearance, it 
is not unfrequently brightened up after "dipping" (that is cleaning 
in acid) by means of a scratch brush (a brush made of fine brass 
wire), the action of which helps to produce a very brilliant gold-like 
surface. It is protected from tarnish .by the application of lacker. 

BLANCHED COPPER. 

Fuse 8 ounces of copper and -J- ounce of neutral arsenical salt with 
a flux made of calcined borax, charcoal dust and powdered glass. 

BROWNING GUN BARRELS. 

The tincture of iodine diluted with one-half its bulk of water, is 
a superior liquid for browning gun barrels. 

SILVERING POWDER FOR COATING COPPER. 

Nitrate of silver 30 grains, common salt 30 grains, cream of tar- 
tar 3£ drachms ; mix, moisten with water, and apply. 

ALLOY FOR JOURNAL BOXES. 

The best alloy for journal boxes is composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; 
tin, 24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 lb. Melt the copper first, then add 
the tin, and lastly the antimony. It. should be first run into ingots, 
then melted and cast in the form required for the boxes. 



166 PPwACTICAL RECEIPTS. 



ALLOY FOR BELLS OF CLOCKS. 



The bells of the pendules, or ornamental clocks, made in Paris, 
are composed of oopper 72.00, tin 26.56, iron 1.44, in 100 parts. ' 

AN ALLOT FOR TOOLS. 

An alloy of 1000 parts of copper and 14 of tin is said to furnish 
tools, which hardened and sharpened in the manner of the ancients, 
afford an edge nearly equal to that of steel. 

ALLOY FOR CYMBALS AND GONGS. 

An alloy for cymbals and gongs is made of 100 parts of copper 
with about 25 of tin. To give this compound the sonorous proper- 
ty in the highest degree, the piece should be ignited after it is cast, 
and then plunged immediately into cold water 

SOLDER FOR STEEL JOINTS. 

Silver 19 pennyweights, copper 1 pennyweight, brass 2 penny- 
weights. Melt under a coat of charcoal tlust. 

SOFT GOLD SOLDER. 

Is composed of four parts gold, one of silver, and one of copper. 
It can be made softer by adding brass, but the solder becomes 
more liable to oxidize. 



Allow dull files to lay in diluted sulphuric acid until they are 
bit deep enough. 

TO PREVBNT RUSTING. m 

Boiled linseed oil will keep polished tools from rusting if it is 
allowed to dry on them. Common sperm oil will prevent them 
from rusting for a short period. A coat of copal varnish is fre- 
quently applied to polished tools exposed to the weather. 

TO GALVANIZE. 

Take a solution of nitro-muriate of gold (gold dissolved in a mix- 
ture of aquafortis and muriatic acid) and add to a gill of it a pint 
of ether or alcohol, then immerse your copper chain in it for about 
15 minutes, when it will be coated with a film of gald. The cop- 
per must be perfectly clean and free from oxyd, grease, or dirt, or 
it will not take on the gold. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. . 167 

ft 
yellow BRASS, for TURNING. — (Common article.) 

Copper, 20 lbs. ; zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead from 1 to 5 ozs. Put in 
the lead last before pouring off. 

RED BRASS, FOR TURNING. 

Copper, 24 lbs. ; zinc, 5 lbs. ; lead, 8 ozs. Put in the lead last 
before pouring off. 

RED BRASS, FREE, FOR TURNING. 

Copper, 160 lbs. ; zinc, 50 lbs. ; lead, 10 lbs. ; antimony, 44 ozs. 

ANOTHER BRASS, FOR TURNING. 

Copper, 82 lbs. ; zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead, 1 lb. 

BEST RED BRASS, FOR FINE CASTINGS. 

Copper, 24 lbs. ; zinc, 5 lbs. ; bismuth, 1 oz. Put in the bis- 
muth last before pouring off. 

BRONZE METAL. 

Copper, 7 lbs. ; zinc, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. 

BRONZE METAL. 

Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, 12 lbs. ; tin, 8 lbs. 

BELL METAL, FOR LARGE BELLS. 

Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin from 20 to 25 lbs. 

BELL METAL, FOR SMALL BELLS. 

Copper, 3 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 

* COCK METAL, 

Copper, 20 lbs. ; lead, 8 lbs. ; litharge, 1 oz. ; antimony, 8 ozs. 



BRITANNIA. 

HARDENING FOR BRITANNIA. 

To be mixed separately from the other ingredients. Copper, 2 
lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 

GOOD BRITANNIA METAL. 

Tin, *50 lbs. ; copper, 3 lbs. ; antimony, 10 lbs. 

BRITANNIA METAL, 2D QUALITY. 

Tin, 140 lbs. ; copper, 3 lbs. ; antimony, 9 lbs. 

BRITANNIA METAL, FOR CASTING 

Tin, 210 lb?. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 12 lbs, 
15 



168 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

-f- 

BRITANNIA METAL, FOR SPINNING. 

Tin, 100 lbs. ; Britannia hardening, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 4 lbs. 

BRITANNIA METAL, TOR REGISTERS. 

Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 8 lbs. ; antimony, 8 lbs, 

BEST BRITANNIA FOR SPOUTS. 

Tin, 140 lbs. ; copper, 3 lbs. ; antimony, 6 lbs* 

BEST BRITANNIA FOR SPOONS. 

Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 5 lbs. ; antimony, 10 lbs. 

BEST BRITANNIA, FOR HANDLES. 

Tin, 140 lbs. ; copper, 2 lbs. ; antimony, 5 lbs. 

BEST BRITANNIA, FOR LAMPS, PILLERS, AND SPOUTS. 

Tin, 300 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 15 lbs. 

CASTING. 

Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 5 lbs. ; antimony, 5 lbs. 

LINING METAL, FOR BOXES OF RAILWAY CARS. 

Mix tin, 24 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 8 lbs. (for a harden 
ing); then add tin, 72 lbs. 

FINE SILVER COLORED METAL. 

Tin, 100 lbs. ; antimony, 8 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; bismuth, 1 lb, 

GERMAN SILVER, FIRST QUALITY FOR CASTING. 

Copper, 50 lbs. ; zinc, 25 lbs. ; nickel, 25 lbs. 

GERMAN SILVER, SECOND QUALITY FOR CASTING. 

Copper, 50 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel, (best pulverized,) 10 lbs. 

GERMAN SILVER, FOR ROLLING. 

Copper, 60 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel, 25 lbs. 

GERMAN SILVER, FOR BELLS AND OTHER CASTINGS. 

Copper, 60 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel, 20 lbs. ; lead, 3 lbs. ; 
iron, (that of tin plate being best,) 2 lbs. 

IMITATION OF SILVER. 

Tin, 3 ozs. ; copper, 4 lbs. 

PINCHBECK. 

Copper, 5 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 

TOMBAC 

Copper, 16 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. ; zinc, 1 lb. 

RED TOMBAC 

Copper, 10 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb, 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 169 

BRITANNIA METAL. 

Brass, 4 ; tin, 4 parts ; when fused, add bismuth, 4 ; and anti- 
mony, 4 parts. This composition is added at discretion to melted 
tin. 

HARD WHITE METAL. 

Sheet brass, 32 ozs. ; lead, 2 ozs. ; tin, 2 ozs. ; zinc, 1 oz. 

METAL FOR TAKING IMPRESSIONS. 

Lead, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. ; bismuth 5 lbs. 

SPANISH TUTANIA. 

Iron or steel, 8 ozs. ; antimony, 16 ozs. ; nitre, y 3 ozs. Melt 
and harden 8 ozs. tin with 1 oz. of the above compound. 

ANOTHER TDTANIA. 

Antimony, 4 ozs. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; tin, 2 lbs. 

FUSIBLE ALLOT, WHICH MELTS IN BOILING WATER. 

Bismuth, 8 ozs. ; tin, 3 ozs. ; lead, 5 ozs. 

FUSIBLE ALLOT, FOR SIVERING GLASS. 

Tin, 6 ozs. ; lead, 10 ozs. ; bismuth, 21 ozs. ; mercury, a small 
quantity. 



SOLDERS. 

SOLDER FOR GOLD. 

Gold, 6 pwts. ; silver, 1 pwt. ; copper, 2 pwts. 

SOLDER FOR SILVER, FOR THE USE OF JEWELLER'S. 

Fine silver, 19 pwts. ; copper, 1 pwt. ; sheet brass, 10 pwts, 

WHITE SOLDER, FOR SILVER. 

Silver, 1 oz.; tin, 1 oz. 

WHITE SOLDER, FOR RAISED BRITANNIA WARE. 

Tin, 100 lbs., copper, 3 ozs. ; to make it free, add lead, 3 ozs. 

BEST SOFT SOLDER, FOR CAST BRITANNIA WARE. 

Tin, 8 lbs. ; lead, £ lbs. 

TELLOW SOLDER, FOR BRASS, OR COPPER. 

Copper, 1 lb.; zinc, 1 lb. 

TELLOW SOLDER, FOR BRASS OR COPPER. 

(Stronger than the last.) Copper, 32 lbs. ; zinc, 29 lbs,; tin 1 lb. 

SOLDER, FOR COPPER. 

Copper, 10 lbs. ; zinc, 9 lb& 



170 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

BLACK SOLDER. 

Copper, 2 lbs. ; zinc, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 ozs. 

BLACK SOLDER. 

Sheet brass, 20 lbs. ; tin, 6 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 

SILVER SOLDER, FOR PLATED 11HTJX* 

Fine silver, 1 oz. ; brass, 1 pwts. 

PLUMBER'S SOLDER. 

Lead, 2 ; tin, 1 part. 

TINMAN'S SOLDER. 

_ Lead, 1 ; tin, 1 part. 

pewterer's solder. 
Tin, 2; lead, 1 part. 

hard sodder 
Copper, 2 ; zinc, 1 part 



yellow dipping metal. 
Copper, 32 lbs. ; zinc, 2 lbs. ; soft solder, 2$ ozs. 
quick bright dipping acid, for brass which has been ormoloud. 
Sulphuric acid 1 gall. ; nitric acid, 1 gall. 

DIPPING ACID. 

Sulphuric acid, 12 lbsf; nitric acid, 1 pint ; nitre, 4 lbs. ; soot, 
2 handfuls ; brimstone, 2 ozs. Pulverize the brimstone and soak 
it in water an hour. Add the nitric acid last. 

GOOD DIPPING- ACID, FOR CAST BRASS. 

Sulphuric acid, 1 qt., nitre, 1 qt.; water, 1 qt. A little muriatic 
acid may be added or omitted. 

DIPPING ACID. 

Sulphuric acid, 4 galls. ; nitric acid, 2 galls. ; saturated solution 
of sulphate of iron (copperas), 1 pint ; solution of suphate of cop- 
per, 1 qt. 

ORMOLU DIPPING ACID, FOR SHEET BRASS. 

Sulphuric -acid, 2 galls. ; nitric acid, 1 pt. ; muriatic acid 1 pt. ; 
water, 1 pt. ; nitre, 12 lbs. . Put in the muriatic acid last, a little 
at a time and stir the mixture with a stick. 

ORMOLU DIPPING ACID, FOR SHEET OR CAST BRASS. 

Sulphuric acid, 1 gall. ; sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; sulphur, (in flour,) 
1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; saturated solution of zinc in nitric acid, 
mixed with an equal quantity of sulphuric acid, 1 gall. 

TO PREPARE BRASS WORK FOR ORMOLU DIPPING. 

If the work is oily, boil it in lye ; and if it is finished work, filed 
or turned, dip it in old acid, and it is then ready to be ormeloed; 



PRACTICAL IlKCEJPTS. 171 

but if it is unfinished, and free from oil, pickle it in strong sul- 
phuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, and then in the old acid, after 
which it will be ready for ormeloing. 

TO REPAIR OLD NITRIC ACID ORMOLU DIPS. 

If the work after dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol 
till it answers the purpose. If the work after dipping appears too 
smooth, add muriatic acid and nitre till it gives the right appear- 
ance. 

The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to the re- 
ceipts, putting in the proper ingredients to strengthen them They 
should not be allowed to settle, but should be stirred often while 
using. 

VINEGAR BRONZE FOR BRASS. 

Vinegar, 10 galls. ; blue vitriol, 3 lbs. ; muriatic acid, 3 lbs. ; 
corrosive sublimate, 4 grs. ; sal ammonia, 2 lbs. ; alum, 8 ozs. 

BROWN BRONZE DIP. 

Iron scales, 1 lb.; arsenic, 1 oz. muriatic acid, 1 lb.; zinc, (solid,) 
1 oz. Let the zinc be kept in only while it is in use. 

GREEN BRONZE DIP. 

Wine vinegar, 2 qts. ; verditer green, 2 ozs. ; sal ammoniac, 1 
oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. ; alum, ■$- oz. ; French berries, 8 ozs. ; boil the 
ingredients together. 

AQUAFORTIS BRONZE DIP. 

Nitric acid, 8 ozs. ; muriatic acid, 1 qt. ; sal ammoniac, 2 ozs. ; 
alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. ; water, 2 galls. Add the salt after boil- 
ing the other ingredients, and use it hot. 

OLIVE BRONZE DIP, FOR BRASS. 

Nitric acid, 3 ozs; muriatic acid, 2 ozs; add titanium or palla> 
dium ; when the metal is dissolved add 2 galls, pure soft water tq 
each pint of the solution. 

BROWN BRONZE PAINT FOR COPPER VESSELS, 

Tincture of steel, 4 ozs. ; spirits of nitre, 4 ozs. ; essence of den- 
di, 4 ozs. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water £ pint. Mis; in a bottle. Ap- 
ply it with a fine brush, the vessel being full of boiling water var- 
nish after the application of the bronze. 

BRONZE FOR ALL KINDS OF METAL. 

Muriate of ammonia (sal amoniac), 4 drs. ; oxalic acid, 1 dr. ; 
vinegar, 1 pint. Dissolve the oxalic acid first. Let the work ba 
clean. Put on the bronze with a brush, repeating the operation 
as many times as may be necessary. 

BRONZE PAINT FOR IRON OR BRASS. 

Chrome green, 2 lbs. ; ivory >)lack, 1 oz. ; chrome yellow, 1 pz. ; 
good jipan, 1 gill ; grind, alj together and mis with linseed oil. 



172 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 

TO BRONZE GUN BARRELS. 

Dilute nitric acid with water and rub the gun barrels with it ; 
lay them by for a few days, then rub them with oil and polish them 
with bees-wax. 

SILVERING BY HEAT. 

Dissolve 1 oz. of silver in nitric acid; add a small quantity of 
salt ; then wash it and add sal ammoniac, or 6 ozs. of salt and white 
vitriol ; also £ oz. of corrosive sublimate, rub them together till 
they form a paste, rub the piece which i3 to be silvered with the 
paste, heat it till the silver runs, after which dip it in a weak vitriol 
pickle to clean it. 

MIXTURE FOR SILVERING. 

Dissolve 2 ozs. of silver with 3 grains of corrosive sublimate; 
add tartaric acid, 4 lbs. ; salt, 8 qts. 

SEPARATE SILVER FROM COPPER. 

Mix sulphuric acid 1 part ; nitric acid, 1 part ; water, 1 part boil 
the metal in the mixture till it is dissolved, and throw in a li' tie 
salt to cause the silver to subside. 

SOLVENT FOR GOLD. 

Mix equal quantities of nitric and muriatic acids. 

CHINESE WHITE COPPER. 

Copper, 40.4 ; nickel, SI. 6 ; zinc, 25.4; iron, 2.6 parts. 

MANHEIM GOLD. 

Copper, 3 ; zinc, 1 part and a small quantity of tin. 

ALLOT OF THF STANDARD MEASURES USED BY THE BRITISH G0VERMEI7T 

Copper 576; tin, 59; and brass, 48 parts. 

BATH METAL. 

Brass, 32 ; and zinc, 9 parts. 

SPECULUM METAL. 

Copper, 6 ; tin, 2 ; and arsenic, 1 part or, copper, 7 ; zinc, 3 ; 
and tin, 4 parts. 

BLANCHED COPPER. 

Copper, 3 ; and arsenic, i part. 

COMMON PEWTER. 

Tin, 4 ; Lead, 1 part. 

BEST PEWTER. 

Tin, 100 ; antimony, 17 parts. 

A METAL THAT EXPANDS IN COOLING. 

Lead, 9 ; antimony, 2 ; bismuth, 1 part. This metal is very use 
ful in filing small defects in iron castings, &c. 

QUEEN'S METAL. 

Tin, 9 ; antimony, 1 ; bismuth, 1 ; lead, 1 p?\rt. 

MOCK PLATINUM. 

Brass, 8 ; zinc, 5 parts. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 173 



MOCK GOLD. 



Fuse together copper, 16; platinum, 7; zinc, 1 part. When 
eteel is alloyed with 1-500 part of platinum, or with 1-500 part of 
silver, it is rendered much harder, more malleable, and better 
adapted for every kind of cutting instrument. 

Note. — In making alloys, care must be taken to have the more 
infusible metals melted first, and afterwards add the others. 

COMPOSITION USED IN WELDING CAST STEEL. 

' Borax, 10; sal ammoniac, 1 part ; grind or pound them roughly 
together ; then fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking 
care to continue the heat until all spume has disappeared from the 
surface. When the liquid appears clear, the composition is ready 
to be poured out to cool and concrete ; afterwards being ground to 
a fine powder, it is ready for use. To use this composition, the 
steel to be welded is raised to a heat which may be expressed by 
" bright yellow;" it is then dipped among the welding powder, and 
again placed in the fire until it attains the same degree of heat as 
before, it is then ready to be placed under the hammer. 

CAST IRON CEMENT. 

Clean borings, or turnings, of cast iron, 16 ; sal ammoniac, 2 ; 
flour of sulphur, 1 part; mix them well together in a mortar and 
keep them dry. When required for use, take of the mixture 1 ; 
clean borings, 20 parts ; mix thoroughly, and add a sufficient 
quantity of water. A little grindstone dust added improves the 
cement. 

FLUID FOR TINNING IRON, COPPER, BRASS AND ZINC. 

To 1 quart of muriatic acid add small pieces of zinc, until bub- 
bles cease to rise ; add 2 ounces ground sal ammoniac. For tin 
add 2 parts water. 



174 STRENGTH OF HATEHIALS — GJKIiOK AND OTHERS. 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

[From Grier's Mechanic's Calculator, &c.~\ 

Bar op Iron. — The average breaking weight of a Bar of 
Wrought Iron, 1 inch square, is 25 tons ; its elasticity is destroy- 
ed, however, by about two-fifths of that weight, or 10 tons. It is 
extended within the limits of its elasticity, .000096, or one-ten- 
thousandth part of an inch for every ton of strain per square inch 
of sectional area. Hence, the greatest constant load should never 
exceed one-fifth of its breaking weight or 5 tons for every square 
inch of sectional area. 

The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with cast 
iron is as 14 to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron bars, 8 
inches deep, 11-2 inches thick, and 33 inches between the sup- 
ports, wiil carry 4 1-2 tons. 

Bridges. — The greatest extraneous load on a square foot is about 
120 pounds. 

Floors.— The least load on a square foot is about 160 pounds. 

Roofs. — Covered with slate, on a square foot, 51 1-2 pounds. 

Beams. — When a beam is supported in the middle and loaded at 
each end, it will bear the same weight as when supported at both 
ends and loaded in the middle ; that is, each end will bear half the 
weight. 

Cast Iron Beams should not be loaded to more than one-fifth of 
their ultimate strength. 

The strength of similar beams varies inversely as their length? ; 
that is, if » beam 10 feet long will support 1000 pounds, a similar 
beam 20 feet long would support only 500 pounds. 

A beam supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth part 
the weight which it would if supported at both ends. 

When a beam is fixed at both ends, and loaded in the middle, it 
will bear one-half more than it will when loose at both ends. 
When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout it will bear double. 
When the beam is fixed at both ends, and loaded uniformly, it 
will bear triple the weight. 

In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direction, its 
Btrengh or strain willt>eequal to that of a beam of the same breadth, 
thickness, and material, but only of the length of the horizontal 
distance between the points of support. 

In the construction of beams, it is necessary that their form 
should be such that they will be equally strong throughout. If a 
beam be fixed at one end, and loaded at the other, and the breadth 
uniform throughout its length, then, that the beam may be equally 
strong throughout, its form must be that of a parabola. This form 
is generally used in the beams of steam engines. 

When a beam is regularly diminished towards the points that are 
least strained, so that a!) the sections are similar figures, whether 



STRENGTH OE MATERIALS— GRIER AND OTHERS. 1*75 

it be supported at each end and loaded in the middle, or supported 
in the middle and loaded at each end, the outline should be a cubic 
parabola. 

When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the same 
breadth throughout, then, if the load be uniformly distributed 
throughout the length of the beam, the line bounding the compress- 
ed side should be a semi-ellipse. 

The same form should be made use of for the rails of a wagon way, 
where they have to resist the pressure of a load rolling over them. 

Similar plates of the same thickness, either supported at the ends 
or all round, will carry the the same weight either uniformly 
distributed or laid on sinilar points, whatever be their extent. 

The lateral strength of any beam, or bar of wood, stone, metal, &c, 
is in proportion to its breadth multiplied by depthf. In square 
beams the lateral strengths are in proportion to the cubes of the 
sides, and in general of like-sided beams as the cubes of the similar 
sides of the section. 

The lateral strength of any beam or bar, one end being fixed in the 
wall and the other projecting, is inversely as the distance of the 
weight from the section acted upon ; and the strain upon any sec- 
tion is directly as the distance of the weight from that section. 

The absolute strength of ropes or bars, pulled lengthwise, is in 
proportion to the squares of their diameters. All cylindrical or 
prismatic rods are equally strong in every part, if they are equally 
thick, but if not they will break where the thickness is least. % 

The strength of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength of a 
solid one as the difference between the fourth powers of the ex- 
terior and interior diameters of the tube, divided by the exterior 
diameter, is to the cube of the diameter of a solid cylinder, — the 
quantity of matter in each being the same. Hence, from this it 
will be found, that a hollow cylinder is one-half stronger than a 
solid one having the same weight of material. 

The strength of a column to resist being crushed is directly as 
the square of the diameter, provided it is not so long as to have a 
chance of bending. This is true in metals or stone, but in timber 
the proportion is rather greater than the square. 

MODELS PROPORTIONED TO MACHINES. 

The relation of models to machines, as to strength, deserves the 
particular attention of the mechanic. A model may be perfectly 
proportioned in all its parts as a model, yet the machine, if con- 
structed in the same proportion, will not be sufficiently strong in 
every part ; hence, particular attention should be paid to the kind 
of strain the different parts are exposed to; and from the state- 
ments which follow, the proper dimensions of the structure may be 
determined. 

If the strain to draw asunder in the model be 1, and if the struc- 
ture is 8 times lager than the model, then the stress in the struc- 
ture will be 8£ equal 512. If the structure is 6 times as large as 
the model, then the stress on the structure will be 6f equal 216, 



176 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS — GRIER AND OTHERS. 

and so on ; therefore, the structure will be much less firm than the 
model ; and this the more, as the structure is cube times greater 
than the model. If we wish to determine the greatest size we can 
make a machine of which we have a model, we have. 

The greatest weight which the beam of the model can bear, di- 
vided by the weight which it actually sustains equal a quotent 
which, when multiplied by the size of the beam in the model, will " 
give the greatest possible size of the same beam in the structure. 

Ex. — If a beam in the model be 7 inches long, and bear a weight 
of 4 lbs. but is capable of bearing a weight of 26 lbs. ; what is the 
greatest length which we can make the corresponding beam in the 
structure ? Here 

26 -f- 4 = 6-5, therefore, 6-5 y 7 = 45-5 inches. 

The strength to resist, crushing increases from a model to a struc- 
ture in proportion to their size, but, as above, the strain increases 
as the cubes ; wherefore, in this case, also, the model will be stron- 
ger than the machine, and the greatest size of the structure will 
be found by employing the square root of the quotient in the last 
rule, instead of the quotient itself; thus, 

If the greatest weight which the column in a model can bear is 
3 cwt., and if it actually bears 28 lbs., then, if the column be 18 
inches high, we have 

y ( ^-) = 3-564 ; wherefore 3-464 X 18 = 62-352 
inches, the length of the column in the structure. 



[From Adcock's Engineer.'] 

List of metals, arranged according to their strength.— Steel, 
wrought-iron, cast-iron, platinum, silver, copper, brass, gold, tin, 
bismuth, zinc, antimony, lead, 

According to Tredgold's and Duleau's experiments, apiece of the 
best bar-iron 1 square inch across the end would bear a weight of 
about 77.373 lbs., while a similar piece of cast-iron would be torn 
asunder by a weight of from 16,243 to 19,464 -lbs. Thin iron wires, 
arranged parallel to each other, and presenting a surface at their 
extremity of 1 square inch, will carry a mean weight of 126,340 lbs. 

List of woods, arranged according to their strength.-— Oak, alder, 
lime, box, pine ( sylv.\ ash, elm, yellow pine, fir. 

A piece of well-dried pine wood, presenting a section of 1 square 
inch, is able, according Eytelwein, to support a weight of from 
15,646 lbs. to 20,408 lbs., whilst a similar piece of oak will carry 
as much as 25,850 lbs. 

Hempen cords, twisted, will support the following weights to the 
square inch of their section : 

I inch to 1 inch thick, 8,746 lbs. ; 1 to 3 inches thick, 6,800 lbs.; 
3 to 5 inches thick, 5,345 lbs.; 5 to 7 inches thick, 4,860 lbs. 

Tredgold gives the following rule for finding the weight in lb?, 
which a hempen rope will be capable of supporting : Multiply the 
square of the circumference in inches by 200, and the product will 
be the quantity sought 



STBENGTH OF MATERIALS — GEIEK AZSD OTHERS. 177 

In the practical application of these measures of absolute strength, 
that of metals should be reckoned at one-half, and that of woods and 
cords at one-third of their estimated value. 

In a parallielopipedon of uniform thickness, supported on two 
points and loaded in the middle, the lateral strength is directlg as the 
product of the breadth into the square of the depth, and inversely as the 
length. Let W represent the lateral strength of any material, esti- 
mated by the weight, b the breadth, and d the depth of its end, and 
I the distance between the points of support ; then W=/ d?b -4- 41. 

If the parellelopipedon be fastened only at one end in a horizon- 
tal position, and the load be applied at the opposits end, W = / 
d*b -h U. 

It is to be observed that the three dimensions, 6, d, and /, are to 
be taken in the same measure, and that b be so great that no lateral 
curvature arise from the weight ; / in each formula represents the 
lateral strength, which varies in different materials, and which must 
be learnt experimentally. 

A beam having a rectangular end, whose breadth is two or three 
times greater than the breadth of another beam, has a power of 
suspension respectively two or three times greater than it ; if the 
end be two or three times deeper than the end of the other, the 
suspension power of that which has the greater depth exceeds the 
suspension power of the other, four or nine times ; if its length be 
two or three times greater than than the length of another beam, 
its power of suspension will be -J- 1-3 respectively that of the other ; 
provided that in each case the mode of suspension, the position of 
the weight, and other circumstances be similar. Hence it follows 
that a beam, one of whose sides tapers, has a greater power of 
suspension if placed on the slant than on the broad side, and that 
the powers of suspension in both cases are in the ratio of their 
sides; so, for instance, a beam, one of whose sides is double the 
width of the other, will carry twice as much if placed on a narrow 
side, as it would if laid on the wide one. 

In a piece of round timber ( a cylinder) the power of suspension 
is in proportion to the diameters cubed, and inversely as the length; 
thus a beam with a diameter two or three times longer than that 
of another, will carry a weight 8 or 27 times heavier respectively 
than that whose diameter is unity, the mode of fastening and load- 
ing it being similar in both cases. 

The lateral strength of square timber is to that of a tree whence 
it is hewn as 10 : 17 nearly. 

A considerable advantage is frequently secured by using hollow 
cylinders instead of solid ones, which, with an equal expenditure 
of materials, have far greater strength, provided only that the solid 
part of the cylinder be of a sufficient thickness, and that the work- 
manship be good ; especially that in cast metal beams the thickness 
be uniform, and the metal free from flaws. According to Ey telwein, 
such hollow cylinders are to solid ones of equal weight of metal as 
1.212 : 1, when the inner semi-diameters is to the outer as 1 : 2; 



178 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS — GRIER AND OTHERS. 



according to Tredgold as 17 : 10, when the two semi-diameters are 
to each other as 15 : 25, and as 2 : 1, when they are to each other 
as 7 : 10. 

A method of increasing the suspensive power of timber supported 
at both ends, is, to saw down from -J to i of its depth, and forcibly 
drive in a wedge of metal or hard wood, until the timber is slightly 
raised at the middle out of the horizontal line. By experiment it 
was found that the suspensive power of a beam thus cut 1-3 of its 
depth was increased l-19th, when cut -J- it was increased l-29th, 
and when cut 3-4 th through it was increased 1-8 7th. 

The force required to crush a body increases as the section of the 
body increases ; and this quantity being constant, the resistance 
of the body diminishes as the height increases. 

According to Eytelwein's experiments, the strength of columns 
or timbers of rectangular form in resisting compression is, as 

1. The cube of their thickness (the lesser dimension of their sec- 
tion). 2. As the breadth (the greater dimension of their section). 
3. inversely as the square of their length. 

Cohesive power of Bars of Metal one inch square, in Tons. 



Iron, Swedish bar 29.20 

Do., Russian bar 26.70 

Do., English bar 25.00 

Steel, cast 59.93 

Do., blistered 59.43 

Do., sheer.. 56.97 



Copper, wrought 15.80 

Gun metal 16.23 

Copper, cast 8.51 

Brass, cast, yellow 8.01 

Iron, cast 7.87 

Tin, cast 2.11 



Relative Strength of Cast and Malleable Iron. 
It has been found, in the course of the experiments made by Mr. 
Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn, that the average strain that cast 
iron will bear in the way of tension, before breaking, is about seven 
tons and a half per square inch ; the weakest, in the course of 16 
trials on various descriptions, bearing 6 tons, and the strongest 
9 3-4 tons. The experiments of Telford and Brown show that 
malleable iron will bear, on an average, 27 tons ; the weakest bear- 
ing 24, and the strongest 29 tons. On approaching the breaking 
point, cast iron may snap in an instant, without any previous symp- 
tom, while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half its breaking 
weight, and so continues to stretch till it breaks. The experiments 
of Hodgkinson and Fairbairn show also that cast iron is capable of 
sustaining compression to the extent of nearly 50 tons on the 
square inch ; the weakest bearing 36£ tons, and the strongest 60 
tons. In this respect, malleable iron is much inferior to cast iron. 
With 12 tons on the square inch it yields, contracts in length, and 
expands laterally ; though it will bear 27 tons, or more, without 
actual fracture. 



Rennie states that cast iron may be crushed with a weight of 
93,000 lbs., and brick with one of 562 lbs. on the square inch. 



tactical tuft 




PUBLISHED BY 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 

No. 406 "XKT" alnut Stroot, 
PHILADELPHIA. 



fcf Any of the following Books will be sent by mail, free 
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on application. • 

« -■♦ » » — ■ 

American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 

A new and thoroughly revised Edition, with additional 
Engravings. By William Carter Hughes. In one vol- 
ume, 12 mo., $1.25 

Arinengaud, Amoroux, and Johnson, 

THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUS- 
TRIAL DESIGN, and Machinist's and Engineer's Drawing 
Companion ; forming a complete course of Mechanical 
Engineering and Architectural Drawing. From the French 
of M. Arinengaud the elder, Prof, of Design in the Con- 
servatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Arinen- 
gaud the younger, and Amouroux, Civil Engineers. Re- 
written and arranged, with additional matter and plates, 
selections from and examples of the most useful and 
generally employed mechanism of the day. By William 
Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Editor of "The Practical 
Mechanic's Journal.' ' Illustrated by fifty folio steel 
plates and fifty wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to.,... $10.00 

Among the contents are : — Linear Drawing, Definitions and Problems, 
P*ate I. Applications, Designs for inlaid Pavements, Ceilings and 
Balconies, Plate II. Sweeps, Sections and Mouldings, Plate III. Ele 
mentary Gothic Forms and Rosette*?., Plate IV. Ovals, Ellipses, 

1 



PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

Parabolas and Volutes, Plate V. Rules and Practical Data. Study q * 
Projections, Elementary Principles, Plate VI. Of Prisms and other 
Solids, Plate VII. Failes and Practical Data. On Coloring Sections, with 
Applications — Conventional Colors, Composition or Mixture of Colors, 
Plate X. Continuation of the Study of Projections — Use of sections — de- 
tails of machinery, Plate XI. Simple applications — spindles, shafts, 
couplings, wooden patterns, Plate XII. Method of constructing a 
wooden model or pattern of a coupling, Elementary applications- 
rails and chairs for railways, Plate XIII. Rules and Practical Data— 
Strength of material, .Resistance to compression or crushing force, 
Tensional Resistance, Resistance to flexure, Resistance to torsion, 
Friction of surfaces in contact. 

The Intersection and Development of Surfaces, with Ap- 
plications. — The Intersection of Cylinders and Cones, Plate XIV. The 
Delineation and Development of Helices, Screws &nd Serpentines, Plate 

XV. Application of the helix — the construction of a staircase, Plate 

XVI. The Intersection of surfaces — applications to stop-cocks, Plate 

XVII. Rules and Practical Data — Steam, Unity of heat, Heating surface, 
Calculation of the dimensions of boilers, Dimensions of firegrates, 
Chimneys, Safety-valves. 

The Study and Construction of Toothed Gear. — Involute, cy- 
cloid, and epicycloid, Plates XVIII. and XIX. Involute, Fig. 1, Plate 

XVIII. Cycloid, Fig. 2, Plate XVIII. External epicycloid, described 
by a circle rolling about a fixed circle inside it, Fig. 3, Plate XIX. 
Internal epicycloid, Fig. 2, Plate XIX. Delineation of a rack and 
pinion in gear, Fig. 4, Plate XVIII. Gearing of a worm with a worm- 
wheel, Figs. 5 and 6, Plate XVIII. Cylindrical or Spuv Gearing, Plate 

XIX. Practical delineation of a couple -of Spur-wheels, Plate XX. 
The Delineation and Construction of Wooden Patterns for Toothed Wheels, 
Plate XXI. Rules and Practical Data — Toothed gearing, Angular and 
circumferential velocity of wheels, Dimensions of gearing, Thickness 
of the teeth, Pitch of the teeth, Dimensions of the web, Number and 
dimensions of the arms, wooden patterns. 

Continuation of the Study of Toothed Gear.— Design for a 
pair of bevel-wheels in gear, Plate XXII. Construction of wooden 
patterns for a pair of bevel-wheels, Plate XXIII. Involute and 
Helical Teeth, Plate XXIV. Contrivances for obtaining Differential 
Movements — The delineation.of eccentrics and cams, Plate XXV. Rules 
and Practical Data— Mechanical work of effect, The simple machines, 
Centre of gravity, On estimating the power of prime movers, Calcu- 
lation for the brake, The fall of bodies, Momentum, Central forces. 

Elementary Principles of Shadows. — Shadovjs of Prisms, Pyra- 
mids and Cylinders, Plate XXVI. Principles of Shading, Plate XXVII. 
Continuation of the Study of Shadows, Plate XXVIII. Tuscan Order, 
Plate XXIX. Rules and Practical Data — Pumps, Hydrostatic principles, 
Forcing pumps, Lifting and forcing pumps, The Hydrostatic press, 
Hydrostatical calculations and data — discharge of water through dif- 
ferent orifices, Gaging of a water-course of uniform section and fall, 
Velocity of the bottom of water-courses, Calculation of the discharge 
of water through rectangular orifices of narrow edges, Calculation of 
the discharge of water through overshot outlets, To determine the 
width of an overshot outlet, To determine the depth of .the outlet, 
Outlet with a spout or duct. 

Application of Shadows to Toothed Gear, Plate XXX. Ap- 
plication of Shadows to Screws, Plate XXXI. Application of Shadows to 
a Boiler and its Furnace, Plate XXXII. Shading in Black — Shading in 
Colors, Plate XXXIII. 

The Cutting and Shaping of Masonry, Plate XXXIV. Rules 
and Practical Data — Hydraulic motors, Undershot water wheels, with 
plane floats and a circular channel, Width, Diameter, Velocity, Num- 
ber and capacity of the buckets, Useful effect of the water wheel, 
Overshot water wheels, Water wheels with radial floats, Water wheel 
With curved buckets, Turbines. Remarks on Machine Tools. 
2 



PUBLISHED BY HETSTKY CAREY BAIRD. 

The Study of Machinery and Sketching. — Various applications 
and combinations : The Sketching of Machinery, Plates XXXV. and 
XXXVI. Drilling Machine; Motive Machines; Water wheels, Con- 
struction and setting up of water wheels. Delineation of water wheels, 
Design for a water wheel, Sketch of a water wheel ; Overshot Water 
Wheels. Water Pumps, Plate XXXVII. Steam Motors; High-pressure 
expansive steam engine, Plates XXXVIII., XXXIX. and XL. Details 
of Construction ; Movements of the Distribution and Expansion Valves ; 
Rules and Practical Data — Steam engines : Low-pressure condensing 
engines without expansion valve, Diameter of piston, Velocities. 
Steam pipes and passages, Air-pump and condenser, Cold-water and 
feed-pumps, High-pressure expansive engines, Medium pressure con- 
densing and expansive steam engine, Conical pendulum or centrifugal 
governor. 

Oblique Projections.— Application of rules to the delineation of 
an oscillating cylinder, Plate XLI. 

Parallel Perspective. — Principles and applications, Plate XLII. 

True Perspective. — Elementary principles, Plate XLIII. Appli- 
cations—flour mill driven by belts, Plates XLIV. and XLV. Descrip- 
tion of the mill, Representation of the mill in perspective, Notes of 
recent improvements in flour mills, Schiele's mill, Mullin's "ring mill- 
stone," Barnett's millstone, Hastie's arrangement for driving mills, 
Currie's improvements in millstones ; Rules and Practical Data — Work 
performed by various machines, Flour mills, Saw mills, Veneer-sawing 
machines, Circular saws. 

Examples of Finished Drawings of Machinery. — Plate A, 
Balance water-meter ; Plate B, Engineer's shaping machine ; Plate 
C D E, Express locomotive engine ; Plate F., Wood planing machine ; 
Plate G, Washing machine for piece goods ; Plate H, power loom ; 
Plate I, Duplex steam boiler ; Plate J, Direct-acting marine engines. 

Drawing Instruments. 

JBlinn. A Practical Workshop Companion 
for Tin, SheetJron, and Copper-Plate 
' Workers: 

Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns 
used "by Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-Plate Workers ; 
Practical Geometry ; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; 
Tables of the Weights of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables 
of Areas and Circumferences of Circles ; Japans, Varnishes, 
Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc. etc. "By Leroy J. 
Blinn. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo.. $2.50 

Beans, A Treatise on Railroad Curves and the 
Location of Railroads. 

By E. W. Beans, C. E. 12mo. (In press.) 

Bishop, A History of American Manufactures, 

From 1608 to 1860 ; exhibiting the Origin and Growth 
of the Principal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from 
the Earliest Colonial Period to the Present Time ; with a 

3 . 



PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

Notice of the Important Inventions, Tariffs, and the Re- 
sults of each Decennial Census. By J. Leander Bishop, 
M. D, : to which is added Notes on the Principal Manu- 
facturing Centres and Remarkable Manufactories. By 
Edward Young and Edwin T. Freedley. In two vols., 
8vo $6.00 

Bookbinding : A Manual of the Art of Book 
binding, 

Containing full instructions in the different branches of 
forwarding, Gilding and Finishing. Also, the Art of 
Marbling Book-edges and Paper. By James B. Nicholson. 
Illustrated. 12mo., cloth, $2.25 

CONTENTS— Sketch of the Progress of Bookbinding, Sheet- 
work, Forwarding the Edges, Marbling, Gilding the Edges, Covering, 
Half Binding, Blank Binding, Boarding, Cloth-work, Ornamental Art, 
Finishing, Taste and Design, Styles, Gilding, Illuminated Binding, 
Blind Tooling, Antique, Coloring, Marbling, Uniform Colors, Gold 
Marbling, Landscapes, etc., Inlaid Ornaments, Harmony of Colors, 
Pasting Down, etc., Stamp or Press-work, Restoring the Bindings of 
Old Books, Supplying imperfections in Old Books, Hints to Book Col- 
lectors, Technical Lessons. 

Booth and Morfit. The Encyclopedia of 
Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical : 

Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mine- 
ralogy, Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy, By James C. 
Booth, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint ; 
Professor of Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, 
etc.; assisted by Campbell Morfit, author of " Chemical 
Manipulations,' ' etc. 7th Edition. Complete in one 
volume, royal octavo, 978 pages, with numerous wood 
cuts and other illustrations, $5.00 

From the very large Dumber of articles in this volume, it is entirely 
impossible to give a list of the Contents, but attention may be called 
to some among the more elaborate, such as Affinity, Alcoholometry, 
Ammonium, Analysis, Antimony, Arseni^, Blowpipes, Cyanogen, Dis- 
tillation, Electricity, Ethyl, Fermentation, Iron, Lead and Water. 

Brewer; (The Complete Practical,) 

Or Plain, Concise, and Accurate Instructions in the Art 
of Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, etc., etc., and the Process 
of Making all the Small Beers. By M. Lafayette Byrn, 

M. D. With Illustrations. 12mo $1.25 

*Many an old brewer will find in this book valuable hints and sug- 
4 



PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 

gestions worthy of consideration, and the novice can post himself up 
in his trade in all its parts." — Artisan. 

'Builder's Pocket Companion: 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and 
Architecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions con- 
nected with the subject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engi- 
neer, etc. In one volume, 12mo., §1.25 

COH"TEN"TS.-The Builder, Carpenter, Joiner, Mason, Plasterer, 
Plumber, Painter, Smith, Practical Geometry, Surveyor, Cohesive 
Strength of Bodies, Architect. 

"It gives, in a small space, the most thorough directions to the 
builder, from the laying of a brick, or the felling of a tree, up to the 
most elaborate production of ornamental architecture. It is scientific, 
without being obscure and unintelligible ; and every house-carpenter, 
master, journeyman, or apprentice, should have a copy at hand 
always." — Evening Bulletin. 

Byrne. The Handbook for the Artisan, Me- 
chanic, and Engineer, 

Containing Instructions in Grinding and Sharpening of 
Cutting Tools, Figuration of Materials by Abrasion, Lapi- 
dary Work, Grem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing and 
Lackering, Abrasive "Processes, etc., etc. By Oliver 
Byrne. Illustrated with 11 large plates and 185 cuts. 
Svo., cloth, $5.00 

CONTENTS.— Grinding Cutting Tools on the Ordinary Grind- 
stone ; Sharpening Cutting Tools on the Oilstone ; Setting Razors ; 
Sharpening Cutting Tools with Artificial Grinders ; Production of Plane 
Surfaces by Abrasion ; Production of Cylindrical Surfaces by Abra- 
sion ; Production of Conical Surfaces by Abrasion ; Production of 
Spherical Surfaces by Abrasion ; Glass Cutting ; Lapidary Work ; 
Setting, Cutting, and Polishing Flat and Rounded Works; Cutting 
Faucets ; Lapidary Apparatus for Amateurs ; Gem and Glass Engrav- 
ing ; Seal and Gem Engraving ; Cameo Cutting ; Glass Engraving, 
Varnishing, and Lackering ; General Remarks upon Abrasive Pro- 
cesses ; Dictionary of Apparatus ; Materials and Processes for Grinding 
and Polishing commonly employed in the Mechanical and Useful Arts. 

Byrne. The Practical Metal- worker's Assist- 
ant, 

For Tin-plate Workers, Braziers, Coppersmiths, Ziuc- 
plate Ornrmenters and Workers, Wire Workers, White- 
smiths, Blacksmiths, Bell Hangers, Jewellers, Silver and 
Gold Smiths, Electrotypers, and all other Workers in 
Alloys and Metals. Edited by Oliver Byrne. Complete 
in one volume, octavo, $7.00 

It treats of Casting, Founding, and Forging; of Tongs and other 
Tools ; Degrees of Heat and Management of Fires ; Welding of 

5 



PE ACTIO AIi ABTD SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

Heading and Swage Tools ; of Punches and Anvils ; of Hardening aM 
Tempering; of Malleable Iron Castings, Case Hardening, Wrought 
and Cast Iron; the Management and Manipulation of Metals and 
Alloys, Melting and Mixing ; the Management of Furnaces, Casting • 
and Founding with Metallic Moulds, Joining and Working Sheet Metal ; 
Peculiarities of the different Tools employed ; Processes dependent on 
the ductility of Metals ; Wire Drawing, Drawing Metal Tubes, Solder- 
ing ; The use of the Blowpipe, and every other known Metal Worker's 
Tool. 

Byrne, The Practical Model Calculator, 

For the Engineer, Machinist, Manufacturer of Engine 
Work, Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By 
Oliver Byrne, Compiler and Editor of the Dictionary of 
Machines, Mechanics, Engine Work and Engineering, and 
Author of various Mathematical and Mechanical Works. 
Illustrated by numerous engravings. Complete in one 
large volume, octavo, of nearly six hundred pages,. .$4.50 

The principal objects of this work are : to establish model calcula- 
tions to guide practical men and students ; to illustrate every practical 
rule and principle by numerical calculations, systematically arranged ; 
to give information and data indispensable to those for whom it is in- 
tended, thus surpassing in value any other book of its character ; to 
economize the labor of the practical man, and to render his every-day 
calculations easy and comprehensive. It will be found to be one of 
the most complete and valuable practical books ever published. 

Cabinetmaker's and Upholsterer's Companion, 

Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet - 
making and Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, il- 
lustrated by Examples for attaining a proficiency in the 
Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work ; the 
processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl Work ; the 
Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise Shell, 
etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnish- 
ing ; to make French Polish ; to prepare the best Glues, 
Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts 
particularly useful for Workmen generally. By J. Stokes. 

In one volume, 12mo. With Illustrations, $1.25 

" A large amount of practical information, of great service to all 
concerned in those branches of business." 

Campin, A Practical Treatise on Mechanical 
Engineering; 

Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, 
Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, 
Manufacture of Steam Engines, etc. etc. With an Appen- 
dix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis 
Campin, C E. To which are added, Observations on the 
6 



PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 

Construction of Steam Boilers and remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. 
By R Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Cal- 
culating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe,, 
and for a Wheel-cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Man- 
agement of Steel, including Forging, Hardening, Temper- 
ing, Annealing, Shrinking, and Expansion. And the Case- 
hardening of Iron. By GL Ede. 8vo. Illustrated with 29 
plates and 100 wood engravings. 8vo §'j.00 

Colbnrn. The Locomotive Engine ; 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Esti- 
mating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its 
Construction and Management. By Zerah Colbukn. Il- 
lustrated. A new edition. 12mo, $1.25 

"It is the most practical and generally useful work on the Steam 
Engine that we have seen." -^Boston Traveler." 

Dagnerreotypist and Photographer's Companion. 

* 12mo., cloth, $1.25 

Distiller (The Complete Practical), 

By M. Lafayette Byrn, M.D. With. Illustrations. 12mo. 

$1.25 

u So simplified, that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive 
Distillers, but for every farmer, or others who may want to engage in 
Distilling." — Banner of the Union. 

Dussauce, Practical Treatise 

On the Fabrication of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulmi- 
nating Powders. By Prof. H. Dussauce. 12mo.,....$3.00 

CONTENTS.— Phosphorus. — History of Phosphorus ; Physical 
Properties ; Chemical Properties ; Natural State ; Preparation of 
White Phosphorus ; Amorphous Phosphorus, and Benoxide of Lead. 
Matches.— Preparation of Wooden Matches ; Matches inflammable by 
rubbing^without noise ; Common Lucifer Matches: Matches without 
Phosphorus ; Candle Matches ; Matches with Amorphous Phospho- 
rus ; Matches and Rubbers without Phosphorus. Gun Cotton. — Proper- 
ties ; Preparation ; Paper Powder ; use of Cotton and Paper Powders 
for Fulminating Primers, etc.; Preparation of Fulminating Primers, 
etc., etc. 

Dussauce, Chemical Receipt Book: 

A General Formulary for the Fabrication of Leading 
Chemicals, and their Application to the Arts, Manufac- 
tures, Metallurgy, and Agriculture. By Prof. H. Dus- 
sauce. {In press.) 



PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 

DYEING, CALICO PEINTING, COLOES, COTTON SPIN- 
NING, AND WOOLEN MANUPAOTUEE. 

Baird. Tlie American Cotton Spinner, and 
Manager's and Carder's Guide: 

A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning ; giving the Di- 
mensions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist 
Calculations, etc.; with Notices of recent Improvements : 
together with Rules and Examples for making changes 
in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. Com- 
piled from the papers of the late Robert H. Baird. 
12mo , $1.25 

Oapron ])e Dole, Dassauce. Blues and Car- 
mines of Indigo: 

A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commer, 
cial Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron 
de Dole. Translated, with important additions, by Pro- 
fessor H. Dussafice. 12mo $2.50 

Chemistry Applied to Dyeing, 

By James Napier, F. C. S. Illustrated. 12mo $2.50 

CONTENTS— General Properties of Matter.— Heat, Light, Ele- 
ments of Matter, Chemical Affinity. Non-Metallic Substances. — Oxygen, 
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlorine, Sulphur, Selenium, Phosphorus, Iodine, 
Bromine, Fluorine, Siiicum, Boron, Carbon. Metallic Substances. — 
General Properties of Metals, Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Soap, 
Barium, Strontium, Calcium, Magnesium, Alminum, Manganese, Iron. 
Cobalt, Nickel, Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, Lead, Bismuth, Tin, TitaniumJ 
Chromium, Vanadium, Tungstenum or Wolfram, Molybdenum, Tella- 
rium, Arsenic, Antimony, Uranium, Cerium, Mercury, Silver, Gold, 
Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Osmium, Rhodium, Lanthanium. Mor- 
dants. — Red Spirits, Barwood Spirits, Plumb Spirits, Yellow Spirits, 
Nitrate of Iron, Acetate of Alumina) Black Iron Liquor, Iron and Tin 
for Royal Blues, Acetate of Copper.. Vegetable Matters used in Dyeing. — 
Galls, Sumach, Catechu, Indigo. Logwood, Brazil-woods, Sandal-wood, 
Barwood, Camwood, Fustic, Young Fustic, Bark or Quercitron, Fla- 
vine, Weld or Wold, Turmeric, Persian Berries, Samower, Madder, 
Munjeet, Annota, Alkanet Root, Archil. Proposed New Vegetable 
Dyes. — Sooranjee, Carajuru, Wongshy, Aloes, Pittacal, Barbary Root. 
Animal Matters used in Dyeing. — Cochineal, Lake or Lac, Kerms. 

This will be found one of the most valuable books on the subject of 
dyeing, ever published in this country. 

Dussauce. Treatise on the Coloring Matters 
Derived from Coal Tar; 

Their Practical Application in Dyeing Cotton, Wool, ancl 
8 



PUBLISHED BY HEILTRY CAREY BAIRD. 

Silk ; the Principles of the Art of Dyeing and of the Dis- 
tillation of Coal Tar ; with a Description of the most Im- 
portant New Dyes now in use. By Professor H. Dus- 
sauce, Chemist. 12mo $2.50 

CONTENTS.— Historical Notice of the Art of Dyeing— Chemical 
Principles of the Art of Dyeing — Preliminary Preparation of Stuffs — 
Mordants — Dyeing — On the Coloring Matters produced by Coal Tar — 
Distillation of Coal Tar — History of Aniline — Properties of Aniline — 
Preparation of Aniline directly from Coal Tar — Artificial Preparation 
of Aniline — Preparation of Benzole — Properties of Benzole — Prepara- 
tion of Nitro-Benzole — Transformation of Nitro-Benzole into Aniline, 
by means of Sulphide of Ammonium ; by Nascent Hydrogen ; by Ace- 
tate of Iron ; and by Arsenite of Potash — Properties of the Bi-Nitro- 
Benzole — Aniline Purple — Violine — Roseine — Emeraldine — Bleu de 
Paris — Futschine, or Magenta— Coloring Matters obtained by other 
bases from Coal Tar — Nitroso-Phenyline — Di Nitro-Aniline — Nitro- 
Phenyline— Picric Acid — Rosolic Acid — Quinoline — Napthaline Colors 
— Chloroxynaphthalic and Perchloroxynapthalic Acids — Carminaph- 
tha — Ninaphthalamine — Nitrosonaphthaline — Naphthamein — Tar Red 
— Azuline — Application of Coal Tar Colors to the Art of Dyeing and 
Calico Printing — Action of Light on Coloring Matters from Coal Tar 
— Latest Improvements in the Art of Dyeing — Chrysammic Acid — Mo- 
lybdic and Picric Acids — Extract of Madder — Theory of the Fixation 
of Coloring Matters in Dyeing and Printing — Principles of the Action 
of the most important Mordants— Aluminous Mordants — Ferruginous 
Mordants — Stanniferous Mordants — Artificial Alizarin — Metallic Hy- 
posulphites as Mordants — Dyer's Soap — Preparation of Indigo for Dye- 
ing and Printing — Relative Value of Indigo — Chinese Green Murexide. 

Dyer and Color-maker's Companion : 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making 
Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the 
various styles and fabrics now in existence ; with the 
Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, 
Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. Second edition. 
In one volume, 12mo $1.25 



French Dyer, (The) : 



Comprising the Art of Dyeing in Woolen, Silk, Cotton, 
etc., etc. By M. M. Riffault, Vernaud, De Fontenelle, 
Thillaye, and Mallepeyre. (In press.) 

Love. The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, 
and Finishing, 

On the Most Approved English and French Methods ; 
"being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woolens 
and Cottons, Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc., Scouring and 
Cleaning Bed and Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc., 
French and English Cleaning, any Color or Fabric of 
Silk, Satin, or Damask. By Thomas Love, a working 

Dyer and Scourer. In one volume, 12mo .,.....$3.00 

9 



PRACTICAL ABTD SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

O'Neill. Chemistry of Calico Printing, Dye- 
ing, and Bleaching ; 

Including Silken, Woolen, and Mixed Goods ; Practical 
and Theoretical. By Charles O'Neill. (In press.) 

O'Neill. A Dictionary of Calico Printing and 
Dyeing, 

By Charles O'Neill. {In press.) 

Scott, The Practical Cotton-spinner and Man* 
ufaeturer; 

Or, The Manager and Overlooker's Companion. This 
work contains a Comprehensive System of Calculations 
for Mill Gearing and Machinery, from the first Moving 
Power, through the different processes of Carding, Draw- 
ing, Slabbing, Roving, Spinning, and Weaving, adapted 
to American Machinery, Practice and Usages. Compen- 
dious Tables of Yarns and Reeds are added. Illustrated 
by large Working-Drawings of the most approved Ameri- 
can Cotton Machinery. Complete in one volume, oc- 
tavo •. $5.00 

This edition of Scott's Cotton-Spinner, by Oliver Byrne, is designed 
for the American Operative. It will be found intensely practical, and 
will be of the greatest possible value to the Manager, Overseer, and 
Workman. 

Sellers, The Color-mixer, 

By John Sellers, an Experienced Practical Workman. 
To which is added a Catechism of Chemistry. In one 
volume, 12mo $2.50 

Smith, The Dyer's Instructor ; 

Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing 
Silk, Cotton, Wool and Worsted, and Woolen Goods, as 
Single and Two-colored Damasks, Moreens, Camlets, 
Lastings, Shot Cobourgs, Silk Striped Orleans, Plain Or- 
leans, from White and Colored Warps, Merinos, Woolens, 
Yarns, etc.; containing nearly eight hundred Receipts. 
To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding, and 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins and Handkerchiefs, 
and the various Mordants and Colors for the different 
10 



PUBLISHED BY HENRY C USSY BAIBD. 



styles of such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. 
A new edition, in one volume, 12mo... $3.00 

CONTENTS.— Wool Dyeing, 60 receipts— Cotton Dyeing, 68 re- 
ceipts — Silk Dyeing, 60 receipts — Woolen Yarn Dyeing, 59 receipts — 
Worsted Yarn Dyeing, 61 receipts — Woolen Dyeing, 52 receipts— Da- 
mask Dyeing, 40 receipts — Moreen Dyeing, 38 receipts — Two-Colored 
Damask Dyeing, 21 receipts — Camlet Dyeing, 23 receipts — Lasting Dye- 
ing, 23 receipts— Shot Cobourg Dyeing, 18 receipts— Silk Striped Or- 
leans, from Black, White, and Colored Warps, 23 receipts — Colored 
Orleans, from Black Warps, 15 receipts — Colored Orleans and Co- 
bourgs, from White Warps, 27 receipts — Colored Merinos, 41 receipts 
— Woolen Shawl Dyeing, 15 receipts — Padding, 42 receipts — Silk Warp, 
Skein, and Handkerchief Printing, 62 receipts — Nature and Use of Dye- 
wares, including Alum, Annotta, Archil, Ammonia, Argol, Super 
Argol, Camwood, Catechu, Cochineal, Chrome, or Bichromate of Pot- 
ash, Cudbear, Chemic, or Sulphate of Indigo, French Berry, or Persian 
Berry, Fustic or Young Fustic, Galls, Indigo, Kermes or Lac Dye, 
Logwood, Madder, Nitric Acid or Aqua Fortis, Nitrates, Oxalic Tin. 
Peachwood, Prussiate of Potash, Quercitron Bark, Safflower, Saun- 
ders or Red Sandal, Sapan Wood, Sumach, Turmeric, Examination of 
Water by Tests, etc., etc. 



Ulrich. Dussauce. A Complete Treatise 

On the Aet of Dyeing Cotton and Wool, as peactised in 
Paeis, Rouen, Mulhouse and Geemany. From the French 
of M. Louis Ulrich, a Practical Dyer in the principal 
Manufactories of Paris, Rouen, Mulhouse, etc., etc. ; to 
which are added the most important Receipts for Dyeing 
Wool, as practised in the Manufacture Imperiale des 
Gobelins, Paris. By Professor H. Dussauce. 12mo..$3.00 

CONTENTS.— 

Rouen Dyes, 106 Receipts. 

Alsace " 235 

German " 109 

Mulhouse " 72 

Parisian " 66 

Gobelins " 100 
In all nearly 700 Receipts. 



Easton. A Practical Treatise on Street or 
Horse-power Railways; 

Their Location, Construction and Management ; with 
general Plans and Rules for their Organization and Ope- 
ration ; together with Examinations as to their Compara- 

11 



PBACTICAli AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

tive Advantages over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries 
as to their Value for Investment ; including Copies of 
Municipal Ordinances relating thereto. By Alexander 
Easton, C. E. Illustrated by twenty-three plates, 8vo., 
cloth , $2.00 

Examinations of Drugs, Medicines, Chemicals, 
etc, 

As to their Purity and Adulterations. By C. H. Peirce, 
M. D. 12mo., cloth $2.50 

Fisher's Photogenic Manipulation. 

16mo., cloth 62 

Gas and Ventilation; 

A Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. By E. E. 
Perkins. 12mo., cloth .$1.00 

Gilhart. A Practical Treatise on Banking. 

By James William Gilbart, F. R. S. A new enlarged and 
improved edition. Edited by J. Smith Homans, editor 
of " Banker's Magazine." To which is added " Money," 
by H. C. Carey. 8vo $3.50 

Gregory's Mathematics for Practical Men; 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Me- 
chanics and Civil Engineers. 8vo., plates, cloth. ..$2.25 

Bardwich. A Manual of Photographic Chem« 
istry ; 

Including the practice of the Collodion Process. By J. 
F. Hardwich. (In press.) 

Hay. The Interior Decorator; 

The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior 
Decorations; with a Practical Treatise on House Paint- 
ing. By D. R. Hay, House Painter and Decorator. Il- 
lustrated by a Diagram of the Primary, Secondary and 
Tertiary Colors. 12mo. (In press.) 
12 



PUBLISHED BY HENEY CAREY BAIRD. 

Inventor's Guide — Patent Office and Patent 
Laws : 

Or, a Guide to Inventors, and a Book of Reference for 
Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others. By J. GL 
Moore. 12mo., cloth $1.25 

Jervis. Railway Property. A Treatise 

On the Construction and Management of Railways; de- 
signed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, 
to the holders of this class of property ; as well as Rail- 
way Managers, Officers and Agents. By John B. Jervis, 
late Chief Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Cro- 
ton Aqueduct, etc. One volume, 12mo., cloth $2.00 

CONTENTS. — Preface — Introduction. Construction. — Introduc- 
tory — Land and Land Damages — Location of Line — Method of Business 
— Grading— Bridges and Culverts— Road Crossings — Ballasting Track- 
Cross Sleepers— Chairs and Spikes — Rails — Station Buildings — Loco- 
motives, Coaches and Cars. Operating. — Introductory— Freight — Pas- 
sengers — Engine Drivers — Repairs to Track — Repairs of Machinery — 
Civil Engineer — Superintendent — Supplies of Material — Receipts— Dis- 
bursements — Statistics — Running Trains — Competition — Financial 
Management — General Remarks. 

Johnson. The Coal Trade of British America ; 

With Researches on the Characters and Practical Values 
of American and Foreign Coals. By Walter R. Johnson, 
Civil and Mining Engineer and Chemist. 8vo $2.00 

This volume contains the results of the experiments made for the 
Navy Department, upon which their Coal contracts are now based. 

Johnston. Instructions for the Analysis of 
Soils, Limestones and Manures. 

By J. F. W. Johnston. 12mo 38 

Larkin. The Practical Brass and Iron Found- 
er's Guide; 

A Concise Treatise on the Art of Brass Founding, Mould- 
ing, etc. By James Larkin. 12mo., cloth $1.25 

Leslie's (Miss) Complete Cookery; 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss 
Leslie. 58th thousand. Thoroughly revised ; with the 
addition of New Receipts. In one volume, 12mo., half 

bound, or in sheep , $1.20 

13 



PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

Leslie's (Miss) Ladies 5 House Book; 

A Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 
12mo., sheep $1.25 

Leslie's (Miss) Two Hundred .Receipts in 
French Cookery, 

Cloth, 12mo 25 

Lieber. Assayer's Guide; 

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners and Smelters, 
for the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, 
of the Ores of all the principal Metals, and of Grold and 
Silver Coins and Alloys. By Oscar M. Lieber, late Geolo- 
gist to the State of Mississippi. 12mo. With illustra- 
tions $1.25 

"Among the indispensable works for this purpose, is this little 
guide. ' ' — Artizan. 

Lowig. Principles of Organic and Physiologi- 
cal Chemistry. 

By Dr. Carl Lowig, Doctor of Medicine and Philosophy; 
Ordinary Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Zurich ; Anthor of " Chemie des Organischen Verbindun 
gen." Translated by Daniel Breed, M. D., of the U. S. 
Patent Office ; late of the Laboratory of Liebig and Lowig. 
8vo., sheep $3.50 

Marble Worker's Manual; 

Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in 
general, their Cutting, Working and Polishing, Veneer- 
ing, etc., etc. 12mo., cloth $1.25 

Miles, A Plain Treatise on Horse-shoeing, 

With Illustrations. By William Miles, Author of " The 
Horse's Foot." $1.00 

14 



PUBLISHED BY HEJsTKY CAREY BAIRD. 

Main & Brown, The Marine Steam-Engine, 

By Thomas J. Main, F.R. Ast. S. Mathematical Professor 
at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas 
Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Chief Engineer R. N. attached 
to the Royal Naval College. Authors of " Questions Con- 
nected with the Marine Steam-Engine," and the. " Indi- 
cator and Dynamometer. ' ' With Numerous Illustrations. 

In one Volume, 8vo $5.00 

CONTENTS,— Introductory Chapter, The Boiler, The Engine, Get- 
ting up Steam, Duties to Machinery when under Steam, Duties to En- 
gine, &c", on arriving in harbor, Miscellaneous, Appendix- 

Main & Brown. Questions on Subjects Con- 
nected with the Marine-Steam Engine, 

And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. 
By Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics Royal Naval 
College, and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer R. N. 12mo., 
cloth , $1.50 

Main & Brown, The Indicator and Dynamo- 
meter, 

With their Practical Applications to the Steam Engine. 
By Thomas J. Main and Thomas Brown. With Illustra- 
tions. 8vo., cloth $1.50 



Morfit. A Treatise on Chemistry 

Applied to the Manufacture of Soap and Candles ; being 
a Thorough Exposition, in all their Minutiae, of the prin- 
ciples and Practice of the Trade, based upon the most 
recent Discoveries in Science and Art. By Campbell 
Morfit, Professor of Analytical and Applied Chemistry in 
the University of Maryland. A new and improved edi- 
tion. Illustrated with 260 Engravings on Wood. Com- 
plete in one volume, large 8vo $7.50 

CONTENTS-CHAPTER I. The History of the Art and its Rela- 
tions to Science — II. Chemical Combination — III. Alkalies and Alka- 
line Earths — IV. Alkalimentary — V. Acids — VI. Origin and Composi- 
tion of Fatty Matters — VII. Saponiflable Fats — Vegetable Fats — Ani- 
mal Fats — Waxes — VIII. Action of Heat and Mineral Acids of Fatty 
Matters — IX. Volatile or Essential Oils, and .Resins— X. The Proxi- 
mate Principles of Fats — Their Composition and Properties— Basic 
Constituents of Fats — XI. Theory of Saponification — XII. Utensils 
Requisite for a Soap Factory — XIII. Preparatory Manipulations in 
the Process of Making Soap — Preparation of the Lyes — XIV. Hard 

15 . 



PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

Soaps— XV. Soft Soaps— XVI. Soaps "by the Cold Process— XVII. Sili 
cated Soaps— XVIII. Toilet Soaps— XIX. Patent Soaps— XX. Fraud 
and Adulterations in the Manufacture of Soap — XXI. Candles — XXIL 
Illumination— XXIII. Philosophy of Flame— XXIV. Raw Material 
for Candles — Purification and Bleaching of Suet — XXV. Wicks — XXVI. 
Dipped Candles— XXVII. Moulded Candles— XXVIII. Stearin Candles 
— XXIX. Stearic Acid Candles — " Star" or " Adamantine" Candles— 
Saponification by Lime — Saponification by Lime and Sulphurous Acid 
— Saponification by Sulphuric Acid — Saponification by the combined 
action of Heat, Pressure and Steam— XXX. Spermaceti Candles — 
XXXI. Wax Candles— XXXII. Composite Candles— XXXIII. Paraffin 
—XXXIV. Patent Candles — XXXV. Hydrometers and Thermometers. 

Mortimer. Pyrotechnist's Companion; 

Or, a Familiar System of Fire-works. By Gr. W. Morti- 
mer. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 12mo$1.25 

Napier. Manual of Electro-Metallurgy; 

Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing 
Processes. By James Napier. From the second London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by Engrav- 
ings. In one volume, 12mo $1.50 

Napier's Electro-Metallurgy is generally regarded as the very best 
Practical Treatise on the Subject in the English Language. 

CONTENTS— History of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy— Descrip- 
tion of Galvanic Batteries, and their respective Peculiarities — Elec- 
trotype Processes — Miscellaneous Applications of the Process of Coat- 
ing with Copper — Bronzing — Decomposition of Metals upon one 
another — Electro-Plating — Electro-Gilding — Results of Experiments 
on the Deposition of other Metals as Coatings, Theoretical Observa- 
tions. 

Norris's Hand-book for Locomotive Engineers 

and Machinists; , 

Comprising the Calculations for Constructing Locomo- 
tives, Manner of setting Valves, etc., etc. By Septimus 
Norris, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. In one volume 
12mo., with Illustrations $2.00 

u With pleasure do we meet with such a work as Messrs. Norris 
and Baird have given us." — Artizan. 

"In this work he has given us what are called 'the secrets of the 
business,' in the rules to construct locomotives, in order that the mil- 
lion should be learned in all things." — Scientific American. 

Nystrom. A Treatise on Screw-Propellers and 
their Steam-Engines ; 

With Practical Rules and Examples by which to Calcu- 
late and Construct the same for any description of Ves- 
sels. By J. W. Nystrom. Illustrated by over thirty 
large Working Drawings. In one volume, octavo. ..$6. 00 
16 



PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD. „ 

Overman, The Manufacture of Iron in all its 
Various Branches; 

To which is added an Essay on the Manufacture of Steel. 
By Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer. With one 
hundred and fifty Wood Engravings. Third edition. In 
one volume, octavo, five hundred pages $7.50 

M We have now to announce the appearance of another valuable 
work on the subject, which, in our humble opinion, supplies any defi- 
ciency 'which late improvements and discoveries may have caused, 
from the lapse of time since the date of ' Mushet' and ' Schrivenor.' 
It is the production of one of our Trans- Atlantic brethren, Mr. Fred- 
erick Overman, Mining Engineer; and we do not hesitate to set it 
clown as a work of great importance to all connected with the iron in- 
terests ; one which, while it is sufficiently technological fully to ex- 
plain chemical analysis, and the various phenomena of iron under 
different circumstances, to the satisfaction of the most fastidious, is 
written in that clear and comprehensive style as to be available to the 
capacity of the humblest mind, and consequently will be of much ad- 
vantage to those works where the proprietors may see the desirability 
of placing it in the hands of their operatives." — London Mining 
Journal. 

Painter, Gilder and Yarnisher's Companion; 

Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating 
to the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing and Glass 
Staining ; with numerous useful and valuable Receipts ; 
Tests for the detection of Adulterations in Oils and 
Colors ; and a statement of the Diseases and Accidents to 
which Painters, Gilders and Varnishers are particularly . 
liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention and 
Remedy. Eighth edition. To which are added Complete 
Instructions in Graining, Marblingj Sign Writing, and 
Gilding on Glass. 12mo., cloth 81.25 

Paper-Hanger's (The) Companion; 

In which the Practical Operations of the Trade are sys- 
tematically laid down ; with copious Directions Prepara- 
tory to Papering ; Preventions against the effect of Damp 
in Walls ; the various Cements and Pastes adapted to 
the several purposes of the Trade ; Observations and Di- 
rections for the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, 
etc., etc. By James Arrowsmith. In one volume 
12mo $1.25 

Practical . (The) Surveyor's Guide; 

Containing the necessary information to make any per- 
son of common capacity a finished Land Surveyor, with- 

* 17 



PBACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

out the aid of a Teacher. By Andrew Duncan, Land 
Surveyor and Civil Engineer. 12mo $1.25 

Having had an experience as a Practical Surveyor, etc., of thirty 
years, it is believed that the author of this volume possesses a thorough 
knowledge of the wants of the profession ; and never having met with 
any work sufficiently concise and instructive in the several details 
necessary for the proper qualification of the Surveyor, it has been his 
object to supply that want. Among other important matters in the 
" book, will be found the following : 

Instructions in levelling and profiling, with a new and speedy plan 
of setting grades on rail and plank roads — the method of inflecting 
curves — the description and design of r^iew instrument, whereby dis- 
tances are found at once, without any calculation— a new method of 
surveying any tract of land by measuring one line through it — a geo- 
metrical method of correcting surveys taken with the compass, to fit 
them for calculation — a short method of finding the angles from the 
courses, and vice versa — the method of surveying with the compass 
through any mine or iron works, and to correct the deflections of the 
needle by attraction — description of an instrument by the help of 
which any one may measure a map by inspection, without calculation 
— a new and short method of calculation, wherein fewer figures are 
used — the method of correcting the diurnal variation of the needle 
—various methods of plotting and embellishing maps— the most cor- 
rect method of laying off plots with the pole, etc.— description of a 
new compass contrived by the author, etc., etc. 

Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the 
Field. 

By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks $1.25 

Kegnaiilt. Elements of Chemistry, 

By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. 
Forrest Betton, M.D., and edited, with notes, by James 
C. Booth, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L, 
, Faber, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 
nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1,500 
pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth $10.00 

Rural Chemistry; 

An Elementary Introduction to the Study of the Science, 
in its relation to Agriculture and the Arts of Life. By 
Edward Solly, Professor of Chemistry in the Horticul- 
tural Society of London. From the third improved Lon- 
don edition. 12mo $1.50 

Shimk. A Practical Treatise 

On Railway Curves, and Location for Young Engineers. 
By Wm. F. Shunk, Civil Engineer. 12mo $1.0(1 

Strength and Other Properties of Metals; 

Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Pro- 



PUBLISHED BY HEjSTRY CAREY BAIKD. 

perties of Metals for Cannpn. With a Description of the 
Machines for Testing Metals, and of the Classification of 
Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ordnance Depart- 
ment U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of 
War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In one vol- 
ume, quarto $10.01 

The best Treatise on Cast-iron extant. 

Tables Showing the Weight 

Of Round, Square and Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc., bv 
Measurement. Cloth 50 

Taylor. Statistics of Coal; 

Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in 
Arts and Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geo- 
logical and Commercial Distribution, and Amount of Pro- 
duction and Consumption on the American Continent. 
With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufacture. By 
R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Halde- 
man. Illustrated by five Maps and many Wood Engrav- 
ings. 8vo., cloth $6.00 

TcmpletoD. The Practical Exaniinator on 
Steam and the Steam Engine ; 

With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged 
for the use of Engineers, Students, and others. By Wni. 
Templeton, Engineer. 12mo $1.25 

This work was originally written for the author's private use. He 
was prevailed upon by various Engineers, who had seen the notes, to 
consent to its publication, from their eager expression of belief that 
it would be equally useful to them as it had been to himself. 

Tin and Sheet Iron Worker's Instructor; 

Comprising complete Descriptions of the necessary Pat- 
terns and Machinery, and the Processes of Calculating 
Dimensions, Cutting, Joining. Raising, Soldering, etc." 
etc. With numerous Illustrations $2.50 

Treatise (A) on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry 
and Logarithms,. including Practical Geometry, Survey 
ing, Measuring of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging 

19 



PRACTICAL A3STD SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

Heights and Distances. By Thomas Kentish. In one 
volume, 12mo $1.25 

A volume of inestimable value to Engineers, Gaugers, Students, and 
others. 

Turubull. The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph; 

With an Historical Account of its Rise, Progress, and 
Present Condition. Also, Practical Suggestions in regard 
to Insulation and Protection from the Effects of Light- 
ning. Together with an Appendix containing several 
important Telegraphic Devices and Laws. By Lawrence 
Turnbull, M. D., Lecturer on Technical Chemistry at the 
Franklin Institute. Second edition. Revised and im- 
proved. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 8vo..$2.50 

Turner's (The) Companion; 

Containing Instruction in Concentric, Elliptic and* Eccen- 
tric Turning ; also various Steel Plates of Chucks, Tools 
and Instruments ; and Directions for Using the Eccentric 
Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter and Rest ; with Patterns 
and Instructions for working them. 12mo., cloth.. $1.25 

Weatherley (Henry). Treatise on the Art of 
Boiling Sugar, Crystallizing, Lozenge- 
making, Comfits, Gam Goods, 

12mo.. $2.0C 

Williams. On Heat and Steam: 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, 
and Expansion. By Charles Wye Williams. Illustrated. 
8vo S3.50 



SOCIAL SCIENCE. 

THE WORKS OP HENRY C. CAREY. 



" I challenge the production from among the writers on political 
economy of a more learned, philosophical, and convincing speculator 
on that theme, than my distinguished fellow-citizen, Henry C. Carey. 
The works he has published in support of the protective policy, are 
remarkable for profound research, extensive range of inquiry, rare 
logical acumen, and a consummate knowledge of history." — Speech of 
Hon. Edward Joy Morris, in the House of Representatives of the United 
States, February 2, 1859. 
20 



PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIHD. 



THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY. 

11 Henry C. Carey, the best known and ablest economist of North 
America. ***** in Europe he is principally known by his 
striking and original attacks, based upon the peculiar advantages of 
American experience, on some of the principal doctrines, especially 
Malthus' ' Theory of Population' and Ricardo's teachings. His views 
have been largely adopted and thoroughly discussed in Europe." — 
" The German Political Lexicon," Edited by Bluntschli and Brater. Leipsic, 
1858. 

" We believe that your labors mark an era in the science of political 
economy. To your researches and lucid arguments are we indebted 
for the explosion of the absurdities of Malthus, Say, and Ricardo, in 
regard to the inability of the earth to. meet the demands of a growing 
population. American industry owes you a debt which cannot be re- 
paid, and which it will ever be proud to acknowledge. — From a Letter 
of Hon. George W. Scr anion, M. C, Hon. William Jessup, and over sixty 
influential citizens of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, to Henry C. Carey, 
April 3, 1859. 

Financial Crises; 

Their Causes and Effects. 8vo., paper 25 

French and American Tariffs, 

Compared in a Series of Letters addressed to Mons. M. 
Chevalier. 8vo., paper 25 

Harmony (The) of Interests; 

Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commercial. 8vo., 

paper .* 75 

Cloth $1.50 

" We can safely recommend this remarkable work to all who wish 
to investigate the causes of the progress or decline of industrial com- 
munities." — Blackwood's Magazine. 

Letters to the President of the United States. 

8vo., Paper 50 

Miscellaneous Works; 

Comprising " Harmony of Interests," "Money," "Let- 
ters to the President," "French and American Tariffs," 
and "Financial Crises." One volume, 8vo $3.00 



Money; A Lecture 



Before the New York Geographical and Statistical So- 
ciety. 8vo., paper ; 25 

21 



PBACTICAIi AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 



THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY. 


Past 

8vo. 


(The), 


the Present, 


and the Future, 

$2.50 


12mo 




$1.50 



" Full of important facts bearing on topics that are now agitating 
all Europe. * * * These quotations will only whet the appetite 
of the scientific reader to devour the whole work. It is a book full of 
valuable information." — Economist. 

" Decidedly a book to be read by all who take an interest in the pro- 
gress of social science."— Spectator. 

"A Southern man myself, never given to tariff doctrines, I confess to 
have been convinced by his reasoning, and, thank Heaven, have not 
now to learn the difference between dogged obstinacy and consistency. 
• Ye gods, give us but light !' should be the motto of every inquirer 
after truth, but for far different and better purposes than that which 
prompted the exclamation." — The late John S. Skinner. 

" A volume of extensive information, deep thought, high intelli- 
gence, and moreover of material utility." — London Morning Advertiser. 

" Emanating from an active intellect, remarkable for distinct views 
and sincere convictions."— Britannia. 

<s * The Past, Present, and Future,' is a vast summary of progressive 
philosophy, wherein he demonstrates the benefit of political economy 
in the onward progress of mankind, which, ruled and directed by over- 
whelming influences of an exterior nature, advances little by little, 
until these exterior influences are rendered subservient in their turn, 
to increase as much as possible the extent of their wealth and riches." 
— Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains. Par G. Vapereau. Paris, 
1858. 

Principles of Social Science, 

Three volumes, 8vo., cloth .* .$10.00 

CONTENTS.— Volume I. Of Science and it3 Methods— Of Man, 
the Subject of Social Science — Of Increase in the Numbers of Mankind 
—Of the Occupation of the Earth--Of Value— Of Wealth— Of the For- 
mation of Society— Of Appropriation— Of Changes of Matter in Place 
— Of M hanical and Chemical Changes in the Forms of Matter. Vol- 
ume II. Of Vital Changes in the Form of Matter — Of the Instrument 
of Assoc.ation. Volume III. Of Production and Consumption — Of 
Accumulation — Of Circulation — Of Distribution — Of Concentration 
and Centralization — Of Competition — Of Population — Of Food and 
Population—Of Colonization— Of the Malthusian Theory— Of Com- 
merce—Of the Societary Organization— Of Social Science. - 

" I have no desire here to reproach Mr. Malthus with the extreme 
lightness of his scientific baggage. In his day, biology, animal and 
vegetable chemistry, the relations of the various portions of the hu- 
man organism, etc. etc., Jtiad made but little progress, and it is to the 
general ignorance in reference to these questions that we must,»as I 
think, look for explanation of the fact that he should, with so much 
confidence, in reference to so very grave a subject, have ventured to 
suggest a formula so arbitrary in its character, and one whose hollo w- 
ness becomes now so clearly manifest. Mr. Carey's advantage over 
him, both as to facts and logic, is certainly due in great part to the 
progress that has since been made in all the sciences connected with 
life ; but then, how admirably has he profited of them ! How entirely 
is he au courant of all these branches of knowledge which, whether 



PUBLISHED BY HEJKTKY CAKE'S BAIRD. 
THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY. 

directly or indirectly, bear upon his subject ! With what skill does he 
ask of each and every of them all that it can be made to furnish, 
whether of facts or arguments ! With what elevated views, ana 
what amplitude of means, does he go forward in his work ! Abova 
all, how thorough in his scientific caution ! Accumulating inductions, 
and presenting for consideration facts the most undoubted and proba 
bilities of the highest kind, he yet affirms nothing, contenting himself 
with showing that his opponent had no good reason for affirming the 
nature of the progression, nor the time of duplication, nor the gene- 
ralization which takes the facts of an individual case and deduces 
from them a law for every race, every climate, every civilization, 
every condition, moral or physical, permanent and transient, 
healthy or unhealthy, of the various populations of the many coun- 
tries of the world. Then, having reduced the theory to the level of a 
mere hypothesis, he crushes it to atoms under the weight of facts." — 
M. De Fontenay in the "Journal des Economistes." Paris, September, 1862. 

" This book is so abundantly full of notices, facts, comparisons, cal- 
culations, and arguments, that too much would be lost by laying a 
part of it before the eye of the reader. The work is vast and severe 
in its conception and aim, and is far removed from the common run 
of the books on similar subjects." — 11 Mondo Letterario, Turin. 

" In political economy, America is represented by one of tho 
strongest and most original writers of the age, Henry C. Carey, of 
Philadelphia. *********** 

" His theory of Rents is regarded as a complete demonstration that 
the popular views derived from Ricardo are erroneous ; and on the 
subject of Protection, he is generally confessed to be the master- 
thinker of his country." — Westminster Review. 

" Both in America and on the Continent, Mr. Henry Carey has ac- 
quired a great name as a political economist. ***** 

" His refutation of Malthus and Ricardo we consider most triumph- 
ant." — London Critic. 

"Mr. Carey began his publication of Principles twenty years ago; 
he is certainly a mature and deliberate writer. More than this, he is 
readable : his pages swarm with illustrative facts and with American 
instances. * * **.* * * * * * * * 

11 We are in great charity with books which, like Mr. Carey's, theo- 
rize with excessive boldness, when the author, as does Mr. Carey, 
possesses information and reasoning power." — London Athenceum. 

" Those who would fight against the insatiate greed and unscrupu- 
lous misrepresentations of the Manchester school, which we have fre- 
quently exposed, without any of their organs having ever dared to 
make reply, will find in this and Mr. Carey's other works an immense 
store of arms and ammunition. ******** 

81 An author who has, among the political economists of Germany 
and France, numerous readers, is worth attentive perusal in Eng- 
land." — London Statesman. 

" Of all the varied answers to the old cry of human nature, < Who 
will show us any good ?' none are more sententious than Mr. Carey's. 
He says to Kings, Presidents, and People, ' Keep the nation at work, 
and the greater the variety of employments the better.' He is seek- 
ing and elucidating the great radical law« of matter as regards man. 
He is at once the apostle and evangelist of temporal righteousness." 
— National Intelligencer. 

" A work which we believe to be the greatest ever written by an 
American, and one which will in future ages be pointed out as the 
1 most successful effort of its time to form the great scientia scientiarum." 
—Philadelphia Evening Bulletin. 

23 



jeBACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 
THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY. 

The Slave Trade, Domestic and Foreign; 

Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., 
cloth $1.50 

CONTENTS.— The Wide Extent of Slavery— Of Slavery in the 
British Colonies — Of Slavery in the United States — Of Emancipation 
in the British Colonies — How Man passes from Poverty and Slavery 
toward Wealth and Freedom — How Wealth tends to Increase — How 
Labor acquires Value and Man becomes Free — How Man passes from 
Wealth and Freedom toward Poverty and Slavery— How Slavery 
grew, and How it is now maintained in the West Indies — How Slavery 
grew, and is maintained in the United States — How Slavery grows in 
Portugal and Turkey — How Slavery grows in India — How Slavery 
grows in Ireland and Scotland— How Slavery grows in England- 
How can Slavery be extinguished ?— How Freedom grows in Northern 
Germany — How Freedom grows in Russia— How Freedom grows in 
Denmark — How Freedom grows in Spain and Belgium — Of the Duty 
of the People of the United States — Of the Duty of the People of Eng- 
land. 

" As a philosophical writer, Mr. Carey is remarkable for the union 
of comprehensive generalizations with a copious induction of facts. 
His research of principles never leads him to the neglect of details ; 
nor is his accumulation of instances ever at the expense of universal 
truth. He is, doubtless, intent on the investigation of laws, as the 
appropriate aim of science, but no passion for theory seduces him 
Into the region of pure speculation. His mind is no less historical 
than philosophical, and had he not chosen the severer branch in 
which his studies have borne such excellent fruit, he would have 
attained an eminent rank among the historians from whom the litera- 
ture of our country has received such signal illustration." — New York 
Tribune, 



French Politico-Economic Controversy, 

Between the Supporters of the Doctrines of Carey and 
of those of Ricardo and Malthus. By MM. De Fontenay, 
Dupuit, Baudrillart, and others. Translated from the 
" Journal des Eeonomistes," 1862-63. {In press.) 

Protection of Home Labor and Home Produc- 
tions 

Necessary to the Prosperity of tjie American Farmer. 
By H. C. Baird. Paper i3 

Smith, A Manual of Political Economy, 

By E. Peshine Smith. 12mo., cloth $1.25 

24 



